International COVID-19 relief compared: 109 program-figures across 24 countries
109 program-figures across 24 countries, taken from a 114-row source register; every row links to the document it came from (audit office, statistics office, treasury, central bank or multilateral). Turkey's five rows are held out: none states an integrity rate or a cost-to-GDP ratio, one carries no headline cost, and they include the register's only low-confidence row. 49 of the 109 integrity figures come from the department that ran the program rather than an independent auditor — see the Self-eval column.
1 · Fraud rates are not comparable across countries — each bar measures something different
Chart as text
| Country | Program | Integrity construct | Rate % (register cell) | Plotted | Self-eval | Vintage |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nigeria | CBN Targeted Credit Facility | default | 62 | 62% | yes | 2024-03 |
| United Kingdom | Bounce Back Loan Scheme (total losses) | total estimated losses credit plus fraud | 37 | 37% | no | 2021-12-03 |
| United States | Restaurant Revitalization Fund (RRF) | questioned costs | ~23 | ~23% | no | 2024-03-26 |
| United States | Pandemic UI (PUA/FPUC/PEUC + regular) | improper payment | 21.52 | 21.52% | no | 2023-02-08 |
| United Kingdom | Bounce Back Loan Scheme (BBLS) | fraud most likely | 11 | 11% | no | 2021-12-03 |
| Peru | Reactiva Peru | honramiento default | 10.6 | 10.6% | no | 2025-12 |
| United Kingdom | Eat Out to Help Out (EOHO) | error and fraud | 8.5 | 8.5% | yes | 2023-07-17 |
| United States | Paycheck Protection Program (PPP) | estimated fraud | ~8 | ~8% | no | 2023-06-27 |
| Canada | Canada Emergency Wage Subsidy (CEWS) | denied or adjusted post audit | 5.9 (of $5.53B reviewed) | 5.9% | yes | 2023-03-31 |
| United Kingdom | Coronavirus Job Retention Scheme (CJRS / furlough) | error and fraud | 5.1 | 5.1% | yes | 2023-07-17 |
| United States | Shuttered Venue Operators Grant (SVOG) | potential improper payment | ~3.7 | ~3.7% | no | 2024-07-10 |
| Colombia | Five transfer programs (integrity) | confirmed irregular giros | 3.6 | 3.6% | no | 2022-05 |
| Spain | Linea de Avales ICO COVID | default ratio not fraud | 3.21 | 3.21% | yes | 2024-03-31 |
| Australia | Cash Flow Boost | payment gap | 2.7 | 2.7% | yes | 2022 |
| Australia | JobKeeper Payment | fraud plus error net gap | 2.4 (net) / 2.8 (gross) | 2.4% | no (indep eval) | 2023-09-28 |
| Netherlands | TVL (fixed-costs grant) | fraud and improper use | 1.7 | 1.7% | yes | 2022-02 |
Read carefully. These bars are not a like-for-like ranking. Each color is a different construct: estimated fraud (US PPP, UK BBLS) ≠ improper payment / OMB (US UI, SVOG) ≠ combined error+fraud or net payment gap (UK CJRS, Australia JobKeeper) ≠ flagged-but-not-adjudicated (Colombia) ≠ loan default / credit loss (Spain ICO, Nigeria CBN, UK BBLS total). Comparing a UK "error+fraud" rate to a US "improper payment" rate to a Nigerian "loan default" rate without this mapping is the cross-country mistake.
2 · How big each rescue was — shown only where a primary source stated the ratio
Chart as text
| Country | Program | % of GDP (register cell) | Plotted | What the register calls it | Source | Vintage |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | All federal COVID measures (macro) | 8.3 direct / 30.8 liquidity | 30.8% | liquidity | IMF | 2021 |
| New Zealand | COVID-19 Wage Subsidy Scheme | not_stated (overall response 16pct GDP) | 16% | overall response | MSD / Auditor-General | 2026-03-31 |
| France | All State COVID support (macro) | 10.9 total / ~3.6 budgetary | 10.9% | total | Cour des comptes | 2023-07 |
| Germany | All federal COVID measures (macro) | 8.3 direct / 30.8 liquidity | 8.3% | direct | IMF | 2021 |
| Denmark | All COVID compensation (final settlement) | ~4.5 (2020 pkg OECD) | ~4.5% | 2020 pkg OECD | Erhvervsstyrelsen (via DR) | 2024-09 |
| Indonesia | PEN umbrella 2020 | 4.2 | 4.2% | PEN umbrella 2020 | Kemenkeu (Sri Mulyani) | 2021-01 |
| Netherlands | Package (NOW+TVL+Tozo) 2020 | 2.6 (three measures); 3.6 (full 2020 pkg) | 3.6% | full 2020 pkg | CPB | 2021-09-28 |
| Mexico | Aggregate fiscal response (near-placebo) | 0.7 | 0.7% | above-line | IMF | 2020-10 |
Direct/above-the-line spending vs total support vs packages including loans & guarantees are different things (IMF taxonomy). Germany's 8.3% direct sits beside 30.8% once liquidity/guarantees are added. Blanks elsewhere = no primary source stated a program-level ratio (not computed).
3 · Three different machines: advanced economies paid firms, emerging markets paid households, India fed people
Chart as text
| Primary relief instrument | Countries | Which countries |
|---|---|---|
| Short-time work / wage subsidy (pay firms) | 13 | Germany, France, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Italy, Denmark, Sweden, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, South Korea, Japan, Turkey |
| Cash to households (UI / EIP / bonos) | 9 | United States, Brazil, Peru, Colombia, South Africa, Philippines, Kenya, Nigeria, Mexico |
| In-kind food at scale + targeted DBT | 1 | India |
| Social-assistance scale-up (mixed cash) | 1 | Indonesia |
Advanced economies mostly paid firms (short-time work); most emerging markets paid households cash; India fed first (in-kind) atop digital-ID transfers. The US ran both machines — firm-side PPP and household EIPs and UI — but appears in a single group here.
4 · The program-figure register (109 rows) — filter & sort
| Country | Program | Type | Cost | Cur | %GDP | Integrity construct | Integrity amt | Rate% | Self-eval | Source | Vintage |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| United States | Paycheck Protection Program (PPP) | forgivable-loan | 762.6bn | USD | not_stated | estimated_fraud | 64bn | ~8 | no | SBA OIG (original: sba.gov · stored capture) [PDF] (original: sba.gov · stored capture) (link now dead; copy taken from the Internet Archive, 16 July 2026) | 2023-06-27 |
| United States | COVID-EIDL (loans + advances) | business-loan+grant | 378.4bn (+~27.5bn advances) | USD | not_stated | estimated_fraud | 136bn | part of ~17% of EIDL+PPP | no | SBA OIG (original: sba.gov · stored capture) [PDF] (original: sba.gov · stored capture) (link now dead; copy taken from the Internet Archive, 16 July 2026) | 2023-06-27 |
| United States | Pandemic UI (PUA/FPUC/PEUC + regular) | UI-expansion | ~888bn | USD | not_stated | improper_payment | 191bn | 21.52 | no | DOL OIG (original: oig.dol.gov · stored capture) [PDF] (original: oig.dol.gov · stored capture) | 2023-02-08 |
| United States | Pandemic UI (fraud construct) | UI-expansion | ~888bn | USD | not_stated | estimated_fraud | 60bn (floor) | lower-bound | no | GAO [PDF] | 2023-02-08 |
| United States | Economic Impact Payments (EIP) | cash-payment | 814bn | USD | not_stated | improper_payment | not_restated | ~2 | no | GAO/PRAC [PDF] | 2022-06-29 |
| United States | Employee Retention Credit (ERC) | tax-credit | 283bn | USD | not_stated | improper_payment | not_estimated | not_estimated | no | GAO [PDF] | 2026-02-10 |
| United States | Restaurant Revitalization Fund (RRF) | grant | 28.6bn | USD | not_stated | questioned_costs | 6.68bn | ~23 | no | SBA OIG [PDF] (original: oversight.gov) | 2024-03-26 |
| United States | Shuttered Venue Operators Grant (SVOG) | grant | 14.6bn | USD | not_stated | potential_improper_payment | 544m | ~3.7 | no | SBA OIG [PDF] (original: oversight.gov) | 2024-07-10 |
| United Kingdom | Coronavirus Job Retention Scheme (CJRS / furlough) | short-time-work | 68.9bn | GBP | not_stated | error_and_fraud | 3498m | 5.1 | yes | HMRC [PDF] | 2023-07-17 |
| United Kingdom | CJRS (independent cross-check) | short-time-work | 68.9bn | GBP | not_stated | error_and_fraud_combined_with_SEISS | 4500m | 4.6 | no | National Audit Office [PDF] | 2022-10-13 |
| United Kingdom | Self-Employment Income Support Scheme (SEISS) | self-employment-income-support | 28.1bn | GBP | not_stated | error_and_fraud | 1472m | 5.2 | yes | HMRC [PDF] | 2023-07-17 |
| United Kingdom | Bounce Back Loan Scheme (BBLS) | guaranteed-loan-100pct | 47.36bn | GBP | not_stated | fraud_most_likely | 4900m | 11 | no | National Audit Office [PDF] | 2021-12-03 |
| United Kingdom | Bounce Back Loan Scheme (total losses) | guaranteed-loan-100pct | 47.36bn | GBP | not_stated | total_estimated_losses_credit_plus_fraud | 17000m | 37 | no | National Audit Office [PDF] | 2021-12-03 |
| United Kingdom | Coronavirus Business Interruption Loan Scheme (CBILS) | guaranteed-loan-80pct | 26.39bn | GBP | not_stated | suspected_fraud_flagged | 0.06bn | ~0.2 | no | DBT / British Business Bank [PDF] | 2025-12-31 |
| United Kingdom | Eat Out to Help Out (EOHO) | sectoral-demand | 849m | GBP | not_stated | error_and_fraud | 71m | 8.5 | yes | HMRC [PDF] | 2023-07-17 |
| Canada | Canada Emergency Wage Subsidy (CEWS) | wage-subsidy | 100.2bn | CAD | not_stated | denied_or_adjusted_post_audit | 325m | 5.9 (of $5.53B reviewed) | yes | Canada Revenue Agency [PDF] | 2023-03-31 |
| Canada | COVID benefits to individuals (CERB+CRB+CRCB+CRSB+CWLB) | income-benefit-cluster | 110.0bn | CAD | not_stated | confirmed_overpayments | 4.6bn | n/a | no | Office of the Auditor General of Canada [PDF] | 2022-12-06 |
| Canada | All audited COVID benefits (flagged) | mixed | 210.7bn | CAD | not_stated | flagged_should_be_investigated | 27.4bn | n/a | no | Office of the Auditor General of Canada [PDF] | 2022-12-06 |
| Canada | Canada Emergency Response Benefit (CERB) | income-benefit | 74.8bn (w/ EI-ERB) | CAD | not_stated | double_payment_flagged | ~500m | n/a | no | Office of the Auditor General of Canada [PDF] | 2021-03-25 |
| Canada | Canada Emergency Business Account (CEBA) | business-loan | 49.1bn | CAD | not_stated | estimated_ineligible | 3.5bn | ~9 | no | Office of the Auditor General of Canada [PDF] | 2024-12-02 |
| Canada | Canada Emergency Rent Subsidy (CERS + Lockdown Support) | rent-subsidy | 7.66bn | CAD | not_stated | not_separately_quantified | n/a | n/a | no | Canada Revenue Agency [PDF] | 2023-09-03 |
| Germany | Kurzarbeit / Kurzarbeitergeld | short-time-work | 45.5bn | EUR | ~1.3 (derived; unverified) | fraud_referrals | not_quantified_EUR | n/a | partly | Bundesrechnungshof [PDF] | 2023 |
| Germany | KfW COVID loan programs (Sonderprogramm + Schnellkredit) | guaranteed-loan | ~50.9bn (gross commitments 2020) | EUR | not_stated | credit_risk_federally_guaranteed | n/a | n/a | yes | KfW / Bundesregierung [PDF] | 2020-05-28 |
| Germany | Corona-Soforthilfe | grant | 13.6bn | EUR | not_stated | overpayment | ~5bn | ~30 | partly | Bundesrechnungshof [PDF] | 2024 |
| Germany | Überbrückungshilfe I-IV + November-/Dezemberhilfe | grant | >63bn (combined) | EUR | not_stated | subsidy_fraud_investigations | not_separately_EUR | n/a | partly | BMWK / Bundesrechnungshof [PDF] | 2024-03-14 |
| Germany | All federal COVID measures (macro) | macro | 316bn direct / 1.2tn liquidity | EUR | 8.3 direct / 30.8 liquidity | n/a | n/a | n/a | no | IMF [PDF] | 2021 |
| France | Activité partielle (chômage partiel) | short-time-work | 21.98bn State (~32.8bn incl Unédic) | EUR | not_stated | identity_theft_blocked_and_recovered | 329m blocked / 217m recovered | n/a | no | Cour des comptes | 2023-07 |
| France | Fonds de solidarité | grant | 41.03bn | EUR | not_stated | irregular_requests_recovery_titles | 472.6m (titles issued) | n/a | no | Cour des comptes | 2023-07 |
| France | Prêt garanti par l'État (PGE) | guaranteed-loan-70to90pct | 143bn | EUR | not_stated | guarantee_called_default_proxy | 4.3bn (end-Jun 2024) | ~3 | no | Banque de France [PDF] | 2024-10-16 |
| France | All State COVID support (macro) | macro | 249.7bn total / 82.2bn budgetary | EUR | 10.9 total / ~3.6 budgetary | n/a | n/a | n/a | no | Cour des comptes | 2023-07 |
| Australia | JobKeeper Payment | wage-subsidy | 88.82bn | AUD | not_stated | fraud_plus_error_net_gap | 2.2bn | 2.4 (net) / 2.8 (gross) | no (indep eval) | Treasury (Nigel Ray) [PDF] | 2023-09-28 |
| Australia | JobKeeper (management-control finding) | wage-subsidy | 88.82bn | AUD | not_stated | management_control_finding_not_fraud | n/a | n/a | no | ANAO [PDF] | 2022-04-04 |
| Australia | Coronavirus Supplement | income-supplement | 14.1bn (forward est) | AUD | not_stated | not_published | n/a | n/a | no | ANAO [PDF] | 2020-12-10 |
| Australia | Early release of superannuation | early-savings-access | 37.8bn approved (own savings) | AUD | not_stated | rejected_or_cancelled | 1.4bn | ~3.6 | yes | ATO [PDF] | 2023-08-01 |
| Australia | Cash Flow Boost | tax-linked-payment | ~35.7bn | AUD | not_stated | payment_gap | 943m | 2.7 | yes | ATO [PDF] | 2022 |
| South Korea | Employment Retention Subsidy (고용유지지원금) | job-retention-stw-wage-subsidy | 2.2881tn (settlement; 2.2779tn supported) | KRW | not_stated | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | MOEL via korea.kr [PDF] | 2021-08 |
| South Korea | Employment Retention Subsidy (고용유지지원금) | job-retention-stw-wage-subsidy | 2.2881tn | KRW | not_stated | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | MOEL via korea.kr [PDF] | 2021-08 |
| South Korea | Employment Retention Subsidy (고용유지지원금) | job-retention-stw-wage-subsidy | ~4tn cumulative | KRW | not_stated | illegal_receipt_bujeongsugeup | 9.3bn (2020); 22.9bn (2021); 13.1bn (2022) | ~0.41 (2020 detected/disbursed) | yes | MOEL data to Rep. Lee Joo-hwan / Rep. Lim Lee-ja [PDF] | 2023-06-20 |
| South Korea | Employment Insurance Fund planned investigation (incl. 고용유지지원금 sub-line) | enforcement-special-investigation | n/a | KRW | not_stated | illegal_receipt_bujeongsugeup | 1.047bn (고용유지지원금 sub-case); 2.57bn (overall) | not_stated | yes | MOEL (고용노동부) [PDF] | 2022-12-14 |
| South Korea | Emergency Disaster Relief Fund Round 1 (긴급재난지원금 1차 universal) | direct-household-cash | 14.2357tn | KRW | not_stated | no_discrete_audit_figure_located | n/a | n/a | no | MOIS (행정안전부) [PDF] | 2020-09-22 |
| South Korea | Emergency Disaster Relief Fund Round 5 (상생 국민지원금 5차 selective) | direct-household-cash | ~11tn total (8.6tn national) | KRW | not_stated | n/a | n/a | n/a | no | Govt via namu/press (snippet) - reconfirm vs MOEF [PDF] | 2021 |
| South Korea | Emergency Employment Stabilization Subsidy (긴급고용안정지원금 self-employed/freelancers) | self-employed-income-support | 3.4tn (through 4 rounds) | KRW | not_stated | n/a | n/a | n/a | no | MOEL via korea.kr [PDF] | 2021-05-27 |
| South Korea | Emergency Employment Stabilization Subsidy Round 6 (긴급고용안정지원금 6차) | self-employed-income-support | n/a | KRW | not_stated | n/a | n/a | n/a | no | MOEL via korea.kr [PDF] | 2022 |
| South Korea | Small-business COVID disaster funds (소상공인 새희망자금/버팀목자금/손실보전금 7 rounds) | small-business-grant | ~52.9tn cumulative (7 rounds) | KRW | not_stated | improper_plus_fraud_plus_duplicate_recovery_target | 60.6bn recovery target (post-BAI-audit) | ~0.11 | partial (BAI independent audit tripled MSS self-figure) | MSS/소진공 data to Rep. Kwak Sang-eon (감사원 BAI audit) [PDF] | 2025-10-03 |
| South Korea | Aggregate fiscal/package context | macro-context | ~250tn package / ~13.1pct GDP (all-in incl loans/guarantees) | KRW | 3.1 (2020 fiscal stimulus per OECD/IMF); deficit 4.1 | n/a | n/a | n/a | no | OECD / PIIE on IMF data / MOEF [PDF] | 2020-2023 |
| Japan | Employment Adjustment Subsidy (雇用調整助成金) | short-time-work | ~6.35tn | JPY | not_stated | improper_receipt | 113.9bn | ~1.8 | yes | MHLW [PDF] | 2025-12-31 |
| Japan | Special Cash Payment (特別定額給付金) | universal-cash | 12.67tn disbursed (12.88tn budgeted) | JPY | not_stated | none_national_aggregate | n/a | n/a | yes | MIC (Soumu) [PDF] | 2021-03-31 |
| Japan | Sustainability/Persistence Benefit (持続化給付金) | business-grant | 5.51tn | JPY | not_stated | improper_receipt_certified | 2.6bn | ~0.05 | yes | METI/SME Agency + Board of Audit [PDF] | 2026-05-31 |
| Japan | Go To Travel | sectoral-demand | >=539.9bn support | JPY | not_stated | itemized_overpayment_only | n/a | n/a | yes | Japan Tourism Agency + Board of Audit [PDF] | 2021-02-10 |
| Japan | Effectively interest-free unsecured loans (ゼロゼロ融資) | guaranteed-loan | ~42tn | JPY | not_stated | default_risk_not_fraud | n/a | n/a | yes | JFC / SME Agency / FSA [PDF] | 2022-06 |
| Italy | Cassa Integrazione Guadagni (CIGO+FIS+deroga COVID) | short-time-work | ~18.7bn (2020 benefits) | EUR | not_stated | none_quantified_in_source | n/a | n/a | yes | INPS [PDF] | 2022 |
| Italy | Contributi a fondo perduto (Rilancio/Sostegni) | business-grant | ~20.8bn cumulative (~Jul 2021) | EUR | not_stated | fraud_indebito_not_aggregated | not_quantified | n/a | yes | MEF parl. answer / Agenzia delle Entrate [PDF] | 2021-07-07 |
| Italy | Fondo di Garanzia PMI (COVID regime) | state-loan-guarantee | ~271.7bn financing guaranteed (2020-22) | EUR | not_stated | escussioni_not_captured | n/a | n/a | yes | MIMIT [PDF] | 2023-09 |
| Italy | SACE Garanzia Italia | state-loan-guarantee | ~36.4bn guaranteed | EUR | not_stated | n/a | n/a | n/a | yes | MEF task force / SACE [PDF] | 2022-06 |
| Italy | Indennita COVID 600/1000 euro (autonomi) | self-employed-income-support | ~6bn | EUR | not_stated | rejections_eligibility_not_fraud | n/a | 18 | yes | INPS [PDF] | 2021-03 |
| Italy | EU SURE - Italy loan receipts | eu-loan | 27.438bn disbursed | EUR | not_stated | n/a | n/a | n/a | yes | European Commission [PDF] | 2023-06-02 |
| Netherlands | NOW (all tranches) | wage-subsidy-advance-trueup | 23.5bn advances | EUR | 2.6 (NOW+TVL+Tozo 2020) | advance_trueup_correction_design_not_fraud | n/a | n/a | no | Algemene Rekenkamer [PDF] | 2023-05-17 |
| Netherlands | NOW 1 (first period) | wage-subsidy-advance-trueup | 7.9bn | EUR | not_stated | trueup_recovery_leg | 2.3bn | 71 (of settled employers) | no | UWV [PDF] | 2022-06-23 |
| Netherlands | TOZO (self-employed income support) | self-employed-income-support | 2.9bn (2020-21) | EUR | not_stated | trueup_correction | not_quantified | n/a | no | CBS [PDF] | 2021-11-11 |
| Netherlands | TVL (fixed-costs grant) | fixed-costs-grant-advance-trueup | 7.5bn approved | EUR | not_stated | fraud_and_improper_use | 128m | 1.7 | yes | Min EZK / RVO | 2022-02 |
| Netherlands | Tax deferral (bijzonder uitstel) | tax-deferral | 47bn deferred gross; 19.6bn outstanding 1 Oct 2022 | EUR | not_stated | not_fraud_repayable_liquidity | n/a | n/a | no | CBS / Algemene Rekenkamer [PDF] | 2022-10-14 |
| Netherlands | Package (NOW+TVL+Tozo) 2020 | direct-support-context | 20.7bn (three measures 2020) | EUR | 2.6 (three measures); 3.6 (full 2020 pkg) | n/a | n/a | n/a | no | CPB [PDF] | 2021-09-28 |
| Spain | ERTE (short-time work + SS exonerations) | short-time-work | 26.24bn (18.27 benefits + 7.96 exonerations) | EUR | not_stated | non_compliance_indicators_not_fraud | not_monetised_single_sum | ~43 of beneficiaries flagged | no | Tribunal de Cuentas [PDF] | 2025-07-28 |
| Spain | Linea de Avales ICO COVID | state-loan-guarantee | 107.19bn guaranteed (140.74bn mobilised) | EUR | not_stated | default_ratio_not_fraud | 1.32bn net aval paid | 3.21 | yes | ICO [PDF] | 2024-03-31 |
| Spain | Prestacion cese de actividad autonomos (PECATA) | self-employed-income-support | 5.24bn (3.74 benefit + 1.50 exoneration) | EUR | not_stated | prestaciones_indebidas_not_fraud | 505.5m | ~13.5 of benefit | no | Tribunal de Cuentas [PDF] | 2023-12-20 |
| Spain | EU SURE - Spain loan receipts | eu-loan | 21.324bn disbursed | EUR | not_stated | n/a | n/a | n/a | yes | European Commission [PDF] | 2023-06-02 |
| Sweden | Korttidsarbete (short-time work) | short-time-work | 36.36bn (as of 2021-06-30) | SEK | not_stated | aterkrav_reclaim_not_fraud | ~1bn reclaimed (>1bn stopped) | ~2.9 (analyst calc) | yes | Tillvaxtverket [PDF] | 2021-06-11 |
| Sweden | Omstallningsstod (turnover/fixed-cost support) | fixed-costs-grant | 12.68bn (2021-06-30; ~16.4bn total) | SEK | not_stated | aterkrav_reclaim | 32m reclaimed (546m stopped) | <0.5 | yes | Skatteverket [PDF] | 2021-02-23 |
| Sweden | Statliga kreditgarantier (Foretagsakuten) | state-loan-guarantee | 2.7bn lent (1.9bn guaranteed) | SEK | not_stated | low_takeup_no_fraud_figure | n/a | n/a | yes | Riksgalden [PDF] | 2022-08-18 |
| Sweden | Anstand med skatteinbetalning (tax deferral) | tax-deferral | ~111bn deferred (net cost ~10bn) | SEK | not_stated | expected_collection_loss | ~10bn net cost (16-24bn forecast unrepaid) | n/a | no | Riksrevisionen [PDF] | 2025-02-11 |
| Denmark | Lonkompensation (wage compensation) | wage-compensation-trueup | 19.4bn (all phases; 12.7bn phase1) | DKK | not_stated | trueup_clawback_not_fraud | see all-scheme | n/a | yes | Rigsrevisionen [PDF] | 2021-11-24 |
| Denmark | Kompensation for faste omkostninger (fixed costs) | fixed-costs-grant-trueup | 17.4bn (all phases) | DKK | not_stated | trueup_clawback | see all-scheme | n/a | yes | Rigsrevisionen [PDF] | 2021-11-24 |
| Denmark | Kompensation til selvstaendige (self-employed) | self-employed-income-support-trueup | 11.0bn (all phases) | DKK | not_stated | trueup_clawback | see all-scheme | n/a | yes | Rigsrevisionen [PDF] | 2021-11-24 |
| Denmark | All COVID compensation (final settlement) | mixed-trueup | 55.79bn paid | DKK | ~4.5 (2020 pkg OECD) | tilbagebetaling_clawback_trueup_not_fraud | 4.9bn demanded back | ~8.8 | yes | Erhvervsstyrelsen (via DR) [PDF] | 2024-09 |
| New Zealand | COVID-19 Wage Subsidy Scheme | wage-subsidy-hightrust | 18.8bn (Treasury actual ~18.0bn) | NZD | not_stated (overall response 16pct GDP) | employer_repayments_net | 836.3m | ~4.4 | yes | MSD / Auditor-General [PDF] | 2026-03-31 |
| New Zealand | Small Business Cashflow (Loan) Scheme | business-loan | 2.4bn (Treasury 2.263bn) | NZD | not_stated | default_nonrepayment | 161m in default (Dec 2024) | ~8 | yes | Inland Revenue [PDF] | 2025-03-17 |
| New Zealand | Resurgence Support Payment | grant | 2.912bn | NZD | not_stated | no_integrity_figure_published | n/a | n/a | yes | The Treasury [PDF] | 2025-04-24 |
| New Zealand | COVID-19 Support Payment (Omicron 2022) | grant | 1.307bn | NZD | not_stated | not_stated | n/a | n/a | yes | The Treasury [PDF] | 2025-04-24 |
| Brazil | Auxilio Emergencial (AE) 2020 | cash-transfer | 293bn | BRL | 4.0 | inclusion_error_improper | 45.7bn | 14 | no | Tribunal de Contas da Uniao (TCU) [PDF] | 2022-09 |
| Brazil | BEm (employment preservation) 2020 | wage-top-up | 18.2bn (May-Jul) | BRL | not_stated | inclusion_error | 150m+ | <1 | no | Tribunal de Contas da Uniao (TCU) [PDF] | 2021 |
| Brazil | Poverty/distribution outcome | macro-outcome | n/a | BRL | n/a | distributional_effect | n/a | n/a | no | IBGE [PDF] | 2022-12 |
| India | PMGKAY (free foodgrains) | in-kind-food | 3.91 lakh crore | INR | not_stated | exclusion_error_dominant | not_monetised | n/a | no | DFPD / CAG [PDF] | 2023 |
| India | PMGKP DBT cash transfers | cash-transfer | 68820 crore | INR | not_stated | none_reported_in_source | n/a | n/a | yes | Ministry of Finance (PIB) [PDF] | 2020-09 |
| India | ECLGS (MSME credit guarantee) | credit-guarantee | 3.61 lakh crore guaranteed | INR | not_stated | n/a | n/a | n/a | yes | Ministry of Finance (PIB) [PDF] | 2023-03 |
| South Africa | SRD R350 grant | cash-grant | ~24bn (first iteration) | ZAR | not_stated | inclusion_error | not_quantified | n/a | no | Auditor-General South Africa (AGSA) [PDF] | 2020-09 |
| South Africa | TERS (UIF wage relief) | wage-relief | 64bn | ZAR | not_stated | confirmed_irregular_civil_servants | 114m (SIU) | n/a | no | Special Investigating Unit (SIU) [PDF] | 2025-02 |
| South Africa | Loan Guarantee Scheme | credit-guarantee | 18.39bn taken up | ZAR | not_stated | low_takeup | n/a | 37 | yes | Banking Association SA / Treasury / SARB [PDF] | 2020-11 |
| Indonesia | PEN umbrella 2020 | umbrella | 579.78 triliun realised (pagu 695.2) | IDR | 4.2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | yes | Kemenkeu (Sri Mulyani) [PDF] | 2021-01 |
| Indonesia | Bansos (PKH+Sembako+BST) | social-assistance | cluster 220.39 triliun | IDR | not_stated | inclusion_error_leakage | 6.93 triliun | n/a | no | Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan (BPK) | 2022-05 |
| Indonesia | Bansos Jabodetabek (corruption case) | in-kind-food | 7.1 triliun | IDR | not_stated | confirmed_corruption | 32.48 miliar bribe | n/a | no | KPK / Tipikor Court [PDF] | 2021-08 |
| Indonesia | Kartu Prakerja | training-plus-cash | ~20 triliun | IDR | not_stated | leakage_mistargeting | 390.33 + 289.86 miliar | n/a | no | Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan (BPK) | 2022-05 |
| Mexico | Aggregate fiscal response (near-placebo) | macro | ~1.1pct GDP (0.7 above-line) | MXN | 0.7 | minimal_program_minimal_surface | n/a | n/a | no | IMF | 2020-10 |
| Mexico | Creditos a la Palabra / Tandas para el Bienestar | microloan | 36443 millones | MXN | not_stated | default | n/a | ~80 | yes | FINABIEN / ASF (audit 379-DE) | 2021 |
| Mexico | Poverty outcome | macro-outcome | n/a | MXN | n/a | distributional_effect | n/a | n/a | no | CONEVAL | 2021-08 |
| Philippines | SAP / Emergency Subsidy Program | emergency-cash | ~146.4bn disbursed (199.975 released) | PHP | not_stated | inclusion_and_exclusion | n/a | n/a | no | Commission on Audit (COA) / DSWD | 2020-2021 |
| Philippines | SBWS (Small Business Wage Subsidy) | wage-subsidy | 45.1bn released | PHP | not_stated | inclusion_and_exclusion | 1.92bn (inclusion) | 4.3 | no | Commission on Audit (COA) [PDF] | 2023 |
| Philippines | SAP targeting (independent) | emergency-cash | n/a | PHP | 2.5 (total response) | leakage_and_undercoverage | n/a | 73 | no | World Bank | 2022-03 |
| Colombia | Ingreso Solidario | cash-transfer | ~11.5 billon | COP | not_stated | financial_inclusion_positive | n/a | n/a | no | World Bank [PDF] | 2021-04 |
| Colombia | Five transfer programs (integrity) | integrity-finding | 11.2 billon analysed | COP | not_stated | confirmed_irregular_giros | 402000 millones | 3.6 | no | Contraloria General de la Republica [PDF] | 2022-05 |
| Colombia | PAEF (formal payroll subsidy) | payroll-subsidy | ~6.8-7.0 billon | COP | not_stated | not_found_in_primary | n/a | n/a | yes | UGPP [PDF] | 2021 |
| Kenya | COVID-19 Emergency Cash Transfer (audited slice) | cash-transfer | 400m | KES | not_stated | verification_failure | 400m | 100 | no | Office of the Auditor-General (Kenya) | 2021-04 |
| Kenya | COVID-19 weekly cash transfer (program) | cash-transfer | ~9.3bn (10bn appropriated) | KES | not_stated | exclusion_error | n/a | 50.2 | yes | KIPPRA / National Treasury [PDF] | 2021-07 |
| Kenya | Tax relief (PAYE/VAT/turnover cuts) | tax-relief | ~172bn foregone (unverified) | KES | not_stated | foregone_revenue_by_design | n/a | n/a | yes | KRA / National Treasury | 2021-06 |
| Nigeria | COVID-19 CCT (N20000 NSR top-up) | cash-transfer | ~52bn implied | NGN | not_stated | inclusion_error_disputed_counts | n/a | n/a | yes | Office of the VP / NASSCO [PDF] | 2021-01 |
| Nigeria | CBN Targeted Credit Facility | credit | 419.42bn disbursed | NGN | not_stated | default | 261.07bn overdue | 62 | yes | CBN / NIRSAL [PDF] | 2024-03 |
| Nigeria | CACOVID food palliatives | food-palliatives | 23bn | NGN | not_stated | diversion_looting | not_quantified | n/a | yes | CACOVID / BudgIT (via press) [PDF] | 2020-10 |
| Peru | Bonos (YMQC/Independiente/Rural/BFU) | cash-bono | BFU1 ~5168 millones | PEN | not_stated | exclusion_error | n/a | 60.2 | no | Defensoria del Pueblo | 2020-07 |
| Peru | Reactiva Peru | credit-guarantee | 57066 millones disbursed | PEN | 7.9 | honramiento_default | 6031 millones honored | 10.6 | no | Contraloria General de la Republica [PDF] | 2025-12 |
| Peru | 2do Bono Familiar Universal (integrity) | cash-bono | 6644 millones | PEN | not_stated | exclusion_error | n/a | n/a | no | Contraloria General de la Republica [PDF] | 2022-11 |
Source dataset: the tier-1 international relief register of 2026-06-23 (114 rows; the 109 here exclude Turkey). Self-eval = figure from the administering department, as against an independent auditor. Each Source cell links to the document the row was taken from. The US PPP headline of 762.6bn comes from SBA OIG report 23-09 and runs below the 792.6bn approved total in the SBA loan-level file (11,468,210 loans) used elsewhere in this archive; the register does not state which basis it counts. Click a header to sort.