Census P70-174, Living Arrangements of Children: 2019
Summary
A U.S. Census Bureau Household Economic Studies report, Living Arrangements of Children: 2019, by Lydia R. Anderson, Paul F. Hemez and Rose M. Kreider, P70-174, dated February 2022. The introduction states that estimates of children's living arrangements vary by survey and describes the data sources, including the Current Population Survey (CPS ASEC), the American Community Survey and the Survey of Income and Program Participation. It gives definitions, including reference person, stepchildren and multigenerational households. It states that 70.1 percent of children lived with two parents in the 2019 CPS, compared with 72.8 percent when the first report was published based on SIPP data collected in 1991.
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Original at www.census.gov. Archived at Pandemic Darlings, https://pandemicdarlings.com/source-documents/monthly-child-tax-credit-receipt-and-spending-household-structure-and-race-and-ethnicity/
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Living Arrangements of Children: 2019
Household Economic Studies
Lydia R. Anderson, Paul F. Hemez, and Rose M. Kreider
P70-174
February 2022
DATA SOURCES
INTRODUCTION
Estimates of children and their living arrangements vary by survey.
The number and type of parents The surveys used in this report differ in their data collection meth-
with whom children live, along ods, universes, editing, and weighting. More information about the
with their parents’ relationship surveys is available in the “Source of the Data” and “Accuracy of
status, is often associated with the Estimates” sections at the back of this report.
child development and the house-
Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic
hold’s economic wellbeing.1 Living
Supplement (CPS ASEC) 2007 and 2019: In order to improve data
arrangements of children are not
collection of household members and their relationships, the
experienced equally, as vari-
U.S. Census Bureau made changes to the CPS in 2007. The survey
ous factors—including parental
now uses the relationship to the reference person and specific
death, divorce, remarriage, births
questions about the presence of parents and spouses/cohabit-
to unmarried mothers, cohabita-
ing partners to describe children’s living arrangements. This report
tion of unmarried parents, and
compares recent CPS estimates to 2007 because that was the first
multigenerational families—can
year these changes were implemented. Data are available only at the
influence children’s living arrange-
national level.
ments. Today, 40 percent of
births are to unmarried mothers, 2008 and 2018 American Community Survey (ACS): Uses the rela-
and these children may grow up tionship to the reference person question to determine children’s
in one-parent families or spend living arrangements. Data are available at the sub-national level.
significant portions of their lives This report uses the 2008 and 2018 1-year ACS data.
with other relatives or steppar-
Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) 2014: In addi-
ents. 2 Immigration is another fac-
tion to questions regarding the relationship to the reference person
tor that may influence the type of
and specific questions about the presence of parents, spouses, and
1
Caroline Sanner, Luke Russell, Marilyn cohabiting partners, the redesigned 2014 SIPP uses fertility history
Coleman, and Lawrence Ganong, “Half-
Sibling and Stepsibling Relationships: A questions to determine children’s relationship to their siblings, nota-
Systematic Integrative Review,” Journal of bly for those living with half siblings (those who share one biological
Family Theory & Review, 10, 4, 2018,
pp. 765–784. Also, Kelly R. Raley and Megan parent). The first wave of interviews was conducted in 2014, collect-
M. Sweeney, “Divorce, Repartnering, and
ing data about the previous year. SIPP estimates in this report there-
Stepfamilies: A Decade in Review,” Journal
of Marriage and Family, 82, 1, 2020, fore reflect living arrangements in December of 2013. Data are avail-
pp. 81–99.
² Joyce A. Martin, Brady E. Hamilton,
able only at the national level. Although the 2018 SIPP can be used to
Michelle J. K. Osterman, and Anne report more recent estimates, this report presents data from the 2014
K. Driscoll, “Births: Final Data for 2018,”
National Vital Statistics Report, National
SIPP because that was the first release of the redesigned survey.
Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD,
2019, pp. 1–47.
households in which children grow DEFINITIONS
up, as children move close to or
The CPS and SIPP ask the respondent to identify one or two par-
away from their extended family.
ents of the child if those parents are present in the household (this
In addition, parents and grandpar-
includes children living with two mothers or two fathers). A sepa-
ents moving from abroad could
rate question asks respondents to identify the type of relationship
result in higher rates of multigen-
between each child and parent, whether biological, step, or adoptive.
erational households among more
In the CPS and ACS, living arrangements are as of the time of inter-
recent immigrants.
view, whereas the SIPP estimates used here reflect the preceding
This report explores the variation December.
and changes of children’s living
Reference person is someone who is at least 15 years old and is usu-
arrangements in households in the
ally someone whose name is on the lease or mortgage.
United States, 3 and serves as an
update to an earlier report based Stepchildren are identified by the survey respondent, and steppar-
on the household relationship ents may or may not be currently married to the child’s other coresi-
module of the Survey of Income dential parent. For the ACS, the stepparent/stepchild relationship is
and Program Participation (SIPP) only visible between stepchildren and the reference person. Because
collected in early 2009.4 the ACS records only the relationship of each household member to
the reference person, stepchildren related to other household mem-
CHILDREN’S LIVING bers may not be established.
ARRANGEMENTS: 2019
Stepsiblings share a parent, but that parent is the biological parent of
When the first children’s report
one child and the stepparent of the other child.
was published based on SIPP data
collected in 1991, 72.8 percent of Half siblings share one biological parent.
children lived with two parents. 5
Grandchildren are identified either by the respondent reporting the
Nearly 30 years later, in the 2019
child as the grandchild of the reference person, or because the child’s
CPS, 70.1 percent of children lived
mother or father reports that their mother or father is present in the
with two parents (Table 1). Data
household (only available from the CPS and SIPP).
from the 2007 CPS are shown
for comparison since it is the first Multigenerational households are defined as a household consisting
year that data collection changes of three or more generations.
allowed estimates of children liv-
Unmarried partners are people who are at least 15 years old, who are
ing with two unmarried parents.
not currently living with a spouse, and who are in an intimate relation-
3
The U.S. Census Bureau reviewed this ship with another adult in the household. The partner may or may
data product for unauthorized disclosure of
confidential information and approved the not be the parent of any children in the household. In the ACS, only
disclosure avoidance practices applied to cohabiting partners of the reference person are identified.
this release. CBDRB-FY21-POP001-0143.
4
Rose M. Kreider and Renee Ellis,
“Living Arrangements of Children: 2009,”
Current Population Reports, P70-126,
U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 2011, Between 2007 and 2019, there 22.6 percent in 2007 to 21.4 per-
<www2.census.gov/library/publications were several noticeable shifts: cent in 2019, the percentage living
/2011/demo/p70-126.pdf>. More informa-
tion is available in earlier reports in the an increase in the percentage of with only their father increased
series:
children living with two unmar- from 3.2 to 4.4 percent over the
1991: <www2.census.gov/library
/publications/1994/demographics ried parents, a decrease in those same period. The percentage of
/p70-38.pdf>,
1996: <www2.census.gov/library
living with two biological parents, children living with grandpar-
/publications/2001/demographics and an increase in those living ents (with no parents present)
/p70-74.pdf>,
2001: <www2.census.gov/library
with their father only. In 2007, 2.9 increased from 1.8 to 2.1 percent.
/publications/2005/demo/p70-104.pdf>, percent of children lived with two Despite the increasing complex-
2004: <www2.census.gov/library
/publications/2008/demo/p70-114.pdf>. unmarried parents. This increased ity of families, 93.2 percent of
5
Stacy Furukawa, “The Diverse Living to 4.4 percent in 2019. While the children lived with at least one
Arrangements of Children: Summer 1991,”
Current Population Reports, P70-38, percentage of children living with biological parent in 2019, down
U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Government only their mother decreased from from 94.8 percent in 2007.
Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1994.
2 U.S. Census Bureau
Table 1.
Children¹ by Presence and Type of Parent(s): 2007 and 2019
(Numbers in thousands. Information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions is
available at <https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps/techdocs/cpsmar19.pdf>)
2007 2019
Characteristic
Number Percent Number Percent
Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73,750 100.0 73,520 100.0
Living with:
Two parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52,150 70.7 51,560 70.1
Married parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,000 67.8 48,360 65.8
Unmarried parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,154 2.9 3,203 4.4
Biological mother and father . . . . . . . . . . . . 46,680 63.3 45,920 62.5
Married parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44,810 60.8 43,280 58.9
Biological mother and stepfather . . . . . . . . 3,312 4.5 2,817 3.8
Biological father and stepmother . . . . . . . . 994 1.3 1,227 1.7
Biological mother and adoptive father . . . 214 0.3 148 0.2
Biological father and adoptive mother . . . 32 Z 48 0.1
Adoptive mother and father . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739 1.0 688 0.9
Other² . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 0.2 708 1.0
One parent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,050 25.8 19,000 25.8
Mother only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,660 22.6 15,760 21.4
Biological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,350 22.2 15,290 20.8
Father only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,389 3.2 3,234 4.4
Biological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,318 3.1 3,102 4.2
No parent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,545 3.5 2,966 4.0
Grandparents only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,306 1.8 1,577 2.1
Other relatives only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 0.9 800 1.1
Nonrelatives only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 0.6 492 0.7
Other arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 0.1 96 0.1
At least one biological parent . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69,900 94.8 68,550 93.2
At least one stepparent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,607 6.2 5,152 7.0
At least one adoptive parent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,271 1.7 1,236 1.7
Z Entry is less than half of a unit of measurement from zero and there is a meaningful difference between an actual zero and a rounded
zero for the particular statistics.
¹ Excludes children in group quarters, and those who are a family reference person or spouse.
² Includes children living with one adoptive parent and one stepparent, or two stepparents.
Note: Details may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2007 and 2019 Annual Social and Economic Supplements.
The percentage of children living children’s living arrangements or her mother remarries. This
with at least one adoptive parent throughout their childhood. example illustrates the fact that in
(1.7 percent) held steady, while the this cross-sectional look at chil-
Figure 1 shows that, regardless of
percentage living with at least one dren’s living arrangements, it is
the age of the child, more than
stepparent increased from 6.2 to important to keep in mind that as
two-thirds of children lived with
7.0 percent. children age, they may spend time
married parents in 2019. This
in several of the arrangements
included children who lived with
listed. Even though the majority
two biological parents, as well as
of children at each age lived with
LIVING ARRANGEMENTS OF those who lived with a biologi-
married parents, any given child
CHILDREN BY AGE cal parent and a stepparent, or
may not have always lived with
This section of the report looks with two adoptive parents. For
married parents and may later live
at differences in children’s living example, a child may live with
in a mother-only family or another
arrangements by age. CPS data two biological parents while he
arrangement.
do not interview the same people or she is under 6 years old and
over time, but by looking at char- may later experience the divorce Living with two unmarried par-
acteristics by age of the child, of his or her parents. This child ents was most common among
we can approximate changes in may then spend several years in infants under the age of 1 (10.9
a mother-only family before his percent), relative to children in
U.S. Census Bureau 3
Figure 1.
Living Arrangements of Children by Age: 2019
(In percent)
0.7 0.7
0.4 0.5 1.4 2.4
2.1 0.9 0.9 3.9
1.5 1.5 0.9
7.8 1.1 1.2
11.1
13.0
15.8
16.8
7.5 7.1
0.8 5.9
5.1
10.9 8.0 1.3 4.8
1.8 2.6
5.6 2.3
4.0 2.5
Father sole adult
Father only with another adult
Father with cohabiting partner
69.9 69.8 68.1 67.7
69.8
Mother sole adult
Mother only with another adult
Mother with cohabiting partner
Two unmarried parents
Married parents
Under 1 1 to 2 years 3 to 5 years 6 to 11 years 12 to 17 years
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2019 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
other age groups. For children with their mother only, whether Children Living With One, Two, or
12- to 17-years-old, 2.5 percent the mother lived with a cohabit- No Parents
lived with two unmarried parents. ing partner, another adult, or on In 2019, the share of children
This difference may indicate both her own, was highest for children under the age of 18 who lived with
the fact that the prevalence of ages 6 to 11 and 12 to 17.7 So, while two parents (70.1 percent) did
cohabitation has risen and the 16.1 percent of children under the not significantly differ from the
fact that cohabiting couples often age of 1 lived with their mother share who lived with two parents
dissolve or transition to marriage only (7.8 percent with a mother in 2007 (70.7 percent) (Table
after a birth, so these parents may who was the sole adult in the 1). Furthermore, the share (25.8
not continue to cohabit for 12 to household), 23.9 percent of chil- percent) and number (19.0 million)
17 years after the child’s birth.6 dren ages 12 to 17 lived with their of children under the age of 18
The percentage of children living mother only (16.8 percent with a who lived with one parent in 2007
mother who was the sole adult). and 2019 did not significantly
6
Wendy D. Manning, “Cohabitation and
Child Wellbeing,” The Future of Children, differ. In both 2007 and 2019, the
25, 2, 2015, pp. 51–66. Also, Daniel T.
Lichter, Katherine Michelmore, Richard N. majority of children who lived
Turner, and Sharon Sassler, “Pathways to a with one parent lived with their
Stable Union? Pregnancy and Childbearing 7
The percentage of 6- to 11-year-old
Among Cohabiting and Married Couples,” children and the percentage of 12- to mother. However, among chil-
Population Research and Policy Review, 35, 17-year-old children who lived with their
dren who lived with one parent,
2016, pp. 377–399. mother only did not significantly differ.
4 U.S. Census Bureau
the percentage who resided with
their father increased from 12.5
Figure 2a.
percent in 2007 to 17.0 percent in
Percentage of All Children Living With Two Married
2019. The remaining 4.0 percent
Parents by Race and Hispanic Origin: 2007 and 2019
of children lived with no parents (In percent)
(3.0 million), and over half (53.2
percent) of these children resided 2007
with a grandparent. 2019
85.2 84.5
Children Living With Married and
Unmarried Parents: Differences by 73.9
76.2 75.1
Race and Hispanic Origin 71.3
67.8
65.8 65.6
As mentioned earlier, while the
60.9
majority of children under the
age of 18 living with two par-
ents lived with married parents,
an increasing percentage lived
with two unmarried parents. The 36.6 37.7
percentage who lived with two
unmarried parents increased from
2.9 percent in 2007 to 4.4 per-
cent (3.2 million) in 2019 (Table
1). Figure 2a uses CPS data to
show the percentage of children
under the age of 18 who lived with
All White White Black Asian Hispanic
two married parents by race and children alone alone, alone alone
Hispanic origin,8 while Figure 2b non-Hispanic
reports the percentage of children
under the age of 18 living with two Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2007 and 2019
Annual Social and Economic Supplements.
unmarried parents by race and
Hispanic origin.
In 2019, fewer than two-thirds Between 2007 and 2019, the per- share of the population.10 Hispanic
of children under the age of 18 centage of children under the age children under the age of 18 had
lived with two married parents, of 18 living with two unmarried the highest percentage living with
a decrease from 67.8 percent in parents increased for each race two unmarried parents in 2019, at
2007. This varied by race and and Hispanic origin group, except 7.1 percent, up from 4.3 percent
Hispanic origin, with the large for Asian children (Figure 2b). in 2007. Among Black children
majority of Asian children under The number of Hispanic children under the age of 18, 4.5 percent
the age of 18 (84.5 percent) liv- under the age of 18 living with lived with two unmarried parents,
ing with two married parents, two unmarried parents doubled compared to 3.1 percent of White,
the highest percentage of the between 2007 and 2019, from non-Hispanic children under the
groups shown in Figure 2a. Three- 650,0009 to 1.3 million (Table 2), age of 18 and 1.2 percent of Asian
quarters of White, non-Hispanic reflecting the growing Hispanic children under the age of 18.
children; 60.9 percent of Hispanic
children; and 37.7 percent of Black ⁹ U.S. Census Bureau, “C3. Living
Arrangements of Children Under 18 Years
children lived with two married and Marital Status of Parents, by Age, Sex,
parents in 2019. Race, and Hispanic Origin and Selected 10
Jonathan Vespa, Lauren Medina, and
Characteristics of the Child for All Children: David M. Armstrong, “Demographic Turning
⁸ Because Hispanics may be any race, 2007,” America’s Families and Living Points for the United States: Population
data in this report for Hispanics overlap Arrangements, 2007, Table C3, Projections for 2020 to 2060,” Current
with data for the White, Black, and Asian <www.census.gov/data/tables/2007 Population Reports, P25-1144, U.S. Census
populations. /demo/families/cps-2007.html>. Bureau, Washington, DC, 2020.
U.S. Census Bureau 5
Children Living With Two
Unmarried Parents
Figure 2b.
Between the periods from 1990–
1994 to 2009–2013, the percent- Percentage of All Children Living With Two Unmarried
age of births to unmarried moth- Parents by Race and Hispanic Origin: 2007 and 2019
(In percent)
ers who lived with a cohabiting 2007
partner more than doubled, from
2019
11 percent of births to 25 percent.11
Although births to unmarried par-
ents have become more common, 7.1
2.9 4.4 2.8 4.2 4.5 4.3
2.4 3.1 2.9 2.0 1.2
the age, race and Hispanic origin,
and prevalence of poverty among All White White Black Asian Hispanic
children living with two unmar- children alone alone, alone alone
non-Hispanic
ried parents differed from those
whose parents were married.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2007 and 2019
Table 2 reports that in the 2019 Annual Social and Economic Supplements.
CPS, White, non-Hispanic children
made up 35.2 percent of children
living with two unmarried parents,
percent) than those who lived with Hispanic. Conversely, among
and 57.2 percent of children who
two married parents (7.0 percent). those living with two married par-
resided with married parents.
Black and Hispanic children made ents, 8.7 percent were Black and
Asian children also accounted for
up a larger share of children liv- 23.6 percent were Hispanic.
a smaller share of children living
ing with two unmarried parents
with two unmarried parents (1.6 On average, children who lived
than they did for children living
with two unmarried parents were
11
Wendy D. Manning, Susan L. Brown, with two married parents. Among
much younger than those liv-
and Bart Stykes, “Trends in Births to Single children who resided with two
and Cohabiting Mothers, 1980–2013,” ing with two married parents.
Family Profiles, FP-15-03, National Center unmarried parents, 15.5 percent
Specifically, 51.7 percent of chil-
for Family and Marriage Research, Bowling were Black and 41.5 percent were
Green, OH, 2015. dren residing with two unmarried
Table 2.
Characteristics of Children Living With Two Parents (Unmarried and Married): 2019
(Numbers in thousands. Information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions is
available at <https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps/techdocs/cpsmar19.pdf>)
Children living with Children living with
Characteristic two unmarried parents two married parents
Number Percent Number Percent
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,203 100.0 48,360 100.0
Race and Hispanic Origin
White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,241 70.0 37,730 78.0
White alone, non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . 1,126 35.1 27,650 57.2
Black alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 15.5 4,187 8.7
Asian alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 1.6 3,374 7.0
Hispanic (of any race) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,330 41.5 11,420 23.6
Age of Child
0–5 years old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,657 51.7 15,990 33.1
6–11 years old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945 29.5 16,000 33.1
12–17 years old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 18.8 16,370 33.8
Poverty Status
Below poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,220 38.1 3,616 7.5
100 to 199 percent of poverty . . . . . . . . . . 953 29.8 8,480 17.5
200 percent of poverty, or higher . . . . . . 1,030 32.1 36,260 75.0
Note: Details may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2019 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
6 U.S. Census Bureau
parents were between the ages of This share varied by race and cohabiting partner was experi-
0 and 5, compared to 33.1 percent Hispanic origin. Half of Black chil- enced by 38.0 percent of Asian
of those living with married par- dren (50.8 percent), for example, children, 33.3 percent of Hispanic
ents. Children between the ages lived with one parent, compared children, 28.0 percent of Black
of 12 and 17 made up 18.8 percent to about 28.5 percent of Hispanic children, and 25.6 percent of
of those living with two unmarried children. Among White, White, non-Hispanic children liv-
parents, but 33.9 percent of those non-Hispanic children, 18.5 ing with their father only.16
living with two married parents. percent lived with one parent,
whereas 12.3 percent of Asian Children Living With Half Siblings
Finally, children living with two
children did so. The term “half siblings” refers to
unmarried parents were more
those who share one biological
likely to be in poverty. In 2019, 38.1 Although divorced parents have
parent. Research suggests that
percent of children who resided become more likely to share
children living with a half sibling
with two unmarried parents were custody of their children since the
can fare worse than children
living below the poverty line, 1980s and 1990s,14 most children
without half siblings by experienc-
whereas 7.5 percent of children who live with one parent con-
ing lower educational outcomes,
living with two married parents tinue to reside with their mother.
poorer coping skills, increased
lived in poverty (Table 2). This In 2019, the CPS estimated that
aggressive behaviors, and a
gap appears to have widened 83.0 percent of children who lived
greater likelihood of drug and
over time: in 2001, an estimated with one parent were living with
alcohol use.17 The SIPP is one of
27.4 percent of children living their mother, and the remaining
the few data sources that can pro-
with two unmarried parents were 17.0 percent lived with their father
vide detailed information about
living in poverty, compared with (Table 1).
the presence of half siblings, since
10.1 percent of children living
Among children who lived with it collects a full fertility history
with two married parents.12 The
one parent in 2019, some lived from both men and women and
larger gap in the percentage of
with a parent who also had a asks parents to identify whether
children in poverty for these two
cohabiting partner in the house- they had all of their children with
groups likely reflects the fact that
hold. About 9.4 percent of chil-
over time, adults who marry are
dren who were living with their 16
The percentage of Black children who
increasingly those with higher lived with a cohabiting father did not sig-
mother only lived with a cohabit-
educational attainment and higher nificantly differ from the percentage of chil-
ing mother (Figure 3). Living with dren in every other race and Hispanic origin
earnings.13 group living with a cohabiting father. The
a cohabiting mother was most percentage of Asian children who lived with
Children Living With One Parent common for White, non-Hispanic a cohabiting father did not significantly
differ from the percentage of Hispanic chil-
children, whereas Black and Asian dren who lived with a cohabiting father.
Using the CPS, Figure 3 shows
children lived with their mother’s 17
Paula Fomby, Joshua Goode, and
that more than one-quarter (25.8 Stefanie Mollborn, “Family Complexity,
cohabiting partner least often.15 Siblings, and Children’s Aggressive
percent) of children under the age
Among children who lived with Behavior at School Entry,” Demography,
of 18 lived with one parent in 2019. 53, 1, 2016, pp. 1–26. Also, Donna K.Ginther
their father only, an estimated and Robert A. Pollak, “Family Structure and
27.9 percent lived with a cohabit- Children’s Educational Outcomes: Blended
12
In 2019 CPS estimates, children living Families, Stylized Facts, and Descriptive
with two parents of the same sex are shown ing father. Living with a father’s Regressions,” Demography, 41, 4, 2004,
as living with two parents, while in the 2001 pp. 671–696. Also, Kate Taylor Harcourt,
SIPP estimates, they were shown as living Francesca Adler-Baeder, Stephen Erath,
with one parent. This is a small number of 14
Maria Cancian, Daniel R. Meyers, and Greg S. Pettit, “Examining Family
children and does not affect the overall Patricia R. Brown, and Steven T. Cook, Structure and Half-Sibling Influence on
pattern here. “Who Gets Custody Now? Dramatic Adolescent Well-Being,” Journal of Family
13
Kasey Eickmeyer, Paul Hemez, Wendy Changes in Children’s Living Arrangements Issues, 36, 2, 2015, pp. 250–272. Also,
D. Manning, Susan L. Brown, and Karen After Divorce,” Demography, 51, 4, 2014, Caroline Sanner, Luke Russell, Marilyn
Benjamin Guzzo, “Trends in Relationship pp. 1381–1396. Coleman, and Lawrence Ganong, “Half-
Formation and Stability in the United 15
The percentage of Black and the Sibling and Stepsibling Relationships: A
States: Dating, Cohabitation, Marriage, and percentage of Asian children who lived with Systematic Integrative Review,” Journal of
Divorce,” Marriage Strengthening Research a cohabiting mother did not significantly Family Theory & Review, 10, 4, 2018,
and Dissemination Center, 2020, pp. 1–17. differ. pp. 765–784.
U.S. Census Bureau 7
Figure 3.
Children Living With One Parent by Cohabitation Status and Race and Hispanic
Origin: 20191
(In percent)
All White, non-Hispanic Black Asian Hispanic2
Percentage of children living with one parent Percentage of children living with cohabiting
parent, among those living with one parent
45.7
38.0
33.3
27.9 28.0
25.6
24.3
21.4
14.0 13.8
9.8 9.4 9.4
4.4 4.5 5.1 4.2 4.6 4.7
2.5
Living with Living with Living with Living with
mother only father only cohabiting mother cohabiting father
1 Excludes children in group quarters, and those who are a family reference person or spouse.
2 Hispanics may be of any race.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2019 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
the same person. Table 3 provides panel.19 The 2008 estimates were reported for coresident parents
an overall distribution of children derived from responses to ques- provides more detailed informa-
who lived with half siblings by the tions asking how each household tion than was previously avail-
number of coresident parents.18 member was related to everyone able, yielding a higher estimate
else in the household. A technical of children living with siblings
The first wave of the 2014 SIPP
term such as half sibling is seldom with whom they share one biolo-
panel estimated that 12.5 million
used in daily life and was likely gal parent. Some of the changes
children (17.1 percent) under the
reported less frequently than the shown are a result of changes in
age of 18 lived with at least one
other response categories listed measurement and do not reflect
half sibling. This is notably higher
for siblings. In the 2014 redesign true changes in the underlying
than the earlier estimate of 8.0
of the SIPP instrument, deriving population.
million children (10.8 percent)
half sibling relationships from
published from the 2008 SIPP In 2014, 6.3 million children
the fertility history information
(50.0 percent) who lived with at
19
Read this related America Counts least one half sibling lived with
story: <www.census.gov/library/stories
/2020/01/more-children-live-with-half two parents (biological, step, or
18
Note that for those children living -siblings-than-previously-thought.html>. adoptive), while 6.3 million (49.9
with no parents present, we do not have Also, refer to Table 5 in the report pub-
information about whether they share a lished based on the 2008 panel: <www2
biological parent with any siblings with .census.gov/library/publications/2011
whom they live. /demo/p70-126.pdf>.
8 U.S. Census Bureau
Table 3.
Children Living with Half Siblings, by Number of Coresident Biological Parents: 2014
(Numbers in thousands. Information on sampling and nonsampling error is available at <https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/sipp/tech-documentation
U.S. Census Bureau
/source-accuracy-statements/2014/sipp-2014-source-and-accuracy-statement.pdf>)
White alone,
Margin of
Total White alone non- Black alone Asian alone Hispanic
error¹
Hispanic
Living arrangements of children
Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per-
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent
Children under 18 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73,540 100.0 161 X 53,710 73.0 37,780 51.4 11,050 15.0 3,728 5.1 17,920 24.4
Living with half siblings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,540 17.1 609 0.5 8,000 14.9 4,815 12.7 3,376 30.6 102 2.7 3,738 20.9
Living with two parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,275 100.0 480 X 4,839 100.0 3,240 100.0 873 100.0 S B 1,787 100.0
Living with two biological parents . . . . . . . . 3,624 57.8 292 2.4 2,814 58.2 1,834 56.6 488 55.9 S B 1,103 61.7
At least one parent ever divorced . . . . . . . 1,823 29.1 201 2.2 1,500 31.0 1,050 32.4 180 20.6 S B 516 28.9
Only mother ever divorced . . . . . . . . . . . 825 13.1 149 1.6 677 14.0 447 13.8 76 8.7 S B 263 14.7
Only father ever divorced . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 7.9 110 1.3 391 8.1 293 9.0 66 7.6 S B 107 6.0
Both ever divorced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 8.0 84 1.3 432 8.9 310 9.6 37 4.2 S B 147 8.2
Neither ever divorced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,801 28.7 214 2.2 1,314 27.2 784 24.2 308 35.3 S B 586 32.8
Living with one biological parent . . . . . . . . . 2,650 100.0 246 X 2,025 100.0 1,406 100.0 384 100.0 S B 684 100.0
At least one parent ever divorced . . . . . . . 1,535 57.9 229 3.6 1,248 61.6 931 66.2 151 39.3 S B 341 49.9
Only biological parent divorced . . . . . . . 1,258 47.5 208 3.7 1,047 51.7 788 56.0 92 24.0 S B 283 41.4
Only non-biological parent divorced . . 813 30.7 186 3.4 646 31.9 487 34.6 98 25.5 S B 161 23.5
Both ever divorced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 20.2 160 3.0 444 21.9 344 24.5 39 10.2 S B 103 15.1
Neither ever divorced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,115 42.1 151 3.6 777 38.4 476 33.9 233 60.7 S B 343 50.1
Living with one parent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,261 100.0 454 X 3,161 100.0 1,575 100.0 2,503 100.0 S B 1,951 100.0
Mother never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,329 53.2 324 2.4 1,264 40.0 496 31.5 1,718 68.6 S B 969 49.7
Mother married once . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,013 32.2 247 2.2 1,217 38.5 621 39.4 648 25.9 S B 708 36.3
Mother married two or more times . . . . . . . . 665 10.6 163 1.5 502 15.9 317 20.1 102 4.1 S B 228 11.7
Living with father. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 4.0 99 0.9 177 5.6 141 9.0 34 1.4 S B 46 2.4
X Not applicable.
B Base too small to meet statistical standards for reliability of derived figure.
S The estimate is withheld because estimate did not meet publication standards.
¹ This number, when added to or subtracted from the estimate, represents the 90 percent confidence interval around the estimate.
Notes: Children are under 18. Their siblings may be any age. Some categories are not mutually exclusive, and children may contribute to estimates in multiple categories. Details may
not sum to totals because of rounding.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 2014 Panel, Wave 1.
9
percent) lived with one parent. 20 race and Hispanic origin. Among adults in other race or Hispanic
Among children living with a half children who lived with two origin groups. 27
sibling, the proportion of children parents and half siblings, lower
For children living with one parent
living with one or two parents proportions of Black children than
and half siblings, Table 3 shows
varied by race and Hispanic origin. White, non-Hispanic children and
only the number of times their
A lower percentage of Black chil- Hispanic children lived with at
mother married, since few of these
dren who lived with half siblings least one previously divorced par-
children lived with their father
(25.9 percent) lived with two ent (20.6 percent, 32.4 percent,
(4.0 percent). Among White, non-
parents than White, non-Hispanic and 28.9 percent, respectively). 23
Hispanic children living with one
(67.3 percent) and Hispanic (47.8 Similarly, lower percentages of
parent, 9.0 percent lived with their
percent) children. 21 Overall, 57.8 Black children living with two
father. Two-thirds (65.4 percent)
percent of the 6.3 million children parents and half siblings also
of White, non-Hispanic children
living with two parents and a half had both parents who had expe-
who lived with a half sibling and
sibling lived with two biological rienced a divorce (4.2 percent)
their mother only lived with an
parents, while the remainder lived than either White, non-Hispanic
ever-married mother, compared
with one. children (9.6 percent) or Hispanic
to 30.4 percent of Black children
children (8.2 percent). 24 About
Given the relatively high preva- and 49.1 percent of Hispanic
one-third of Black and Hispanic
lence of divorce in the United children. Among those living
children (35.3 and 32.8 percent,
States, and that multiple part- with their mother only and a half
respectively) had neither par-
ner fertility may be increasing, sibling, higher proportions of
ent divorced (including couples
Table 3 also includes several Black children (69.6 percent) and
in which neither had ever mar-
marital history characteristics of Hispanic children (50.9 percent)
ried) among those living with
the parents. 22 Children may live than White, non-Hispanic children
two parents and half siblings. 25
with half siblings because: their (34.6 percent) lived with a never-
Differences by race and Hispanic
parents divorced, remarried, married mother. One-fifth (22.1
origin in the marital histories of
and had subsequent children in percent) of White, non-Hispanic
the parents of children with half
the new marriage; through their children lived with a mother who
siblings reflect broader marital
parents’ multiple partner fertility; had been married two or more
patterns across these groups.
or a combination of remarriage times, compared with 4.1 percent
Black men and women’s lower
and multiple partner fertility. The of Black children and 12.0 percent
probability of having ever married
marital history characteristics of of Hispanic children. These differ-
relative to other race or Hispanic
the children’s parents in Table 3 ences highlight that marriage and
origin groups, 26 for example,
shed some light on variation by remarriage are more prevalent
reduces their overall chances of
factors in creating living situations
experiencing a divorce. Among
20
The number and percentage of chil- in which children reside with a half
dren who lived with a half sibling and two those who have married, Black
parents did not significantly differ from the sibling for White, non-Hispanic
men and women tend to experi-
number and percentage of children who children than for Black or Hispanic
lived with a half sibling and one parent. ence higher divorce rates than
21
Note: Numbers and percentages for children.
Asian children are omitted from the Table
3 discussion because of a small, weighted 23
Among children living with a half
base (less than 150,000) for this group. sibling and two parents, the percentage
Children Living in
Because of the large standard errors living with at least one previously divorced Multigenerational Households:
involved, there is little chance that esti- parent did not significantly differ for White, Race and Hispanic Origin
mates will reveal useful information when non-Hispanic and Hispanic children.
computed on a weighted base smaller than 24
Among children living with a half Research using the decennial cen-
150,000 <www2.census.gov/programs sibling and two parents, the percentage
-surveys/sipp/tech-documentation/source living with two previously divorced parents sus and ACS finds the percentage
-accuracy-statements/2014/sipp-2014-wave did not significantly differ for White, non- of children living in multigenera-
-2-source-and-accuracy-statement.pdf>. Hispanic and Hispanic children.
22
Karen B. Guzzo, “New Partners, 25
Among children living with a half sib- tional households nearly doubled
More Kids: Multiple-Partner Fertility in ling and two parents, the percentage living between 1980 and 2018, from 5.0
the United States,” The ANNALS of the with no previously divorced parent did not
American Academy of Political and Social significantly differ for Black and Hispanic
Sciences, 654, 1, 2014, pp. 66–86. Also, children. 27
Kelly R. Raley, Megan M. Sweeney, and
Mariana Amorim and Laura Tach, “Multiple- 26
U.S. Census Bureau, “S1201. Marital Danielle Wondra, “The Growing Racial and
Partner Fertility and Cohort Change in the Status,” 2019, Table S1201, Ethnic Divide in U.S. Marriage Patterns,”
Prevalence of Half-Siblings,” Demography, <data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=S1201&tid The Future of Children, 25, 2, 2015,
56, 6, 2019, pp. 2033–2061. =ACSST1Y2019.S1201>. pp. 89–109.
10 U.S. Census Bureau
percent in 1980 to 9.9 percent in Islander children had the highest Asian children, 15.6 percent of
2018. This increase was partially percentage living in multigenera- Some Other Race children, 14.9
driven by an increase in single tional households. 29 One-quarter percent of Hispanic children, and
parents and the decrease of White (25.3 percent) of Native Hawaiian 13.0 percent of children of Two or
children as a share of all children. 28 and Other Pacific Islander children More Races lived in multigenera-
The ACS also suggests that from lived in a multigenerational house- tional households in 2018. 30
2008 to 2018, the percentage of hold in 2018, an increase from 17.8
children living in a multigenera- percent in 2008. White, non- Children Living With
Grandparents by Nativity Status
tional household increased for all Hispanic children were the least
race and Hispanic origin groups likely to live in a multigenerational Some advantages of the CPS are
(Figure 4). The share of children household, with 7.8 percent living its large sample size and parent
who lived in multigenerational in multigenerational households in identification questions, which
households varied across race and 2018, up from 6.5 percent in 2008. can be used to examine whether
Hispanic origin groups. In 2018, Among Black children, 15.2 per- a child’s grandparent(s) is living
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific cent lived in a multigenerational in the household. The proportion
28
Natasha V. Pilkauskas, Mariana household, while 19.4 percent of children who resided with a
Amorim, and Rachel E. Dunifon, of American Indian and Alaska grandfather and/or grandmother
“Historical Trends in Children Living in
Multigenerational Households in the United Native children, 17.4 percent of
States: 1870–2018,” Demography, 57, 6, 30
The percentage of Black children who
2020, pp. 2269–2296. Note that this cita- 29
The large sample size of the ACS lived in a multigenerational household did
tion may define children living in multigen- yields reliable estimates for smaller racial/ not significantly differ from the percentage
erational households differently from the ethnic groups like Native Hawaiian Other of Hispanic children or Some Other Race
current report, which could lead to differing Pacific Islander and American Indian and children who lived in a multigenerational
estimates across the sources. Alaska Native. household.
Figure 4.
Percentage of Children Under the Age of 18 Living in Multigenerational Households
by Race and Hispanic Origin: 2008 and 2018
(In percent) 2008
2018
7.8
White alone
9.5
Black or 14.1
African American alone 15.2
American Indian and 17.7
Alaska Native alone 19.4
Asian alone 16.1
17.4
Native Hawaiian and Other 17.8
Pacific Islander alone 25.3
Some Other Race alone 12.9
15.6
Two or More Races 12.2
13.0
White alone, non-Hispanic 6.5
or Latino 7.8
Hispanic or Latino 13.3
14.9
Note: Information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions is available at
<www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/technical-documentation/code-lists.html>.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008 and 2018 American Community Survey, 1-year estimates.
U.S. Census Bureau 11
rose from 7.9 percent in 2001 to corresponding to 7.4 million chil- with a grandparent. Grandchildren
8.3 percent in 2007. 31 In 2019, dren. 32 The proportion of children living with grandparents was most
10.0 percent of children shared living with one or more grandpar- common among native-born chil-
a home with a grandparent, ents differed based on the child’s dren living without parents in the
and their parents’ nativity status household. CPS estimates indicate
(Figure 5). Among native-born more than half (55.8 percent) of
children living with two native- native-born children living with-
born parents, about 8.0 percent out a parent in 2019 were residing
lived with a grandparent in 2019. with a grandparent, underscoring
31
U.S. Census Bureau, “C4. Children
with Grandparents by Presence of Parents, This was slightly less than the the important role that grandpar-
Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin for Selected share of native-born children liv- ents can play as caregivers. 33
Characteristics: 2001,” America’s Families
and Living Arrangements, 2001, Table C4, ing with at least one foreign-born
<www.census.gov/data/tables/2001/demo parent, of whom 9.1 percent lived
/families/families-living-arrangements
.html>. Also, U.S. Census Bureau,
“C4. Children with Grandparents 32
U.S. Census Bureau, “C4. Children
by Presence of Parents, Sex, Race, with Grandparents by Presence of Parents, 33
“Child Welfare and Aging
and Hispanic Origin for Selected Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin for Selected Programs: HHS Could Enhance Support
Characteristics: 2007,” America’s Families Characteristics: 2019,” America’s Families for Grandparents and Other Relative
and Living Arrangements, 2007, Table C4, and Living Arrangements, 2019, Table C4, Caregivers,” GAO Highlights, GAO-20-
<www.census.gov/data/tables/2007 <www.census.gov/data/tables/2019/demo 434, Government Accountability Office,
/demo/families/cps-2007.html>. /families/cps-2019.html>. Washington, DC, 2020.
Figure 5.
Percentage of Children Living With Grandparent(s) by Nativity of Child
and Parents: 2007 and 2019
(In percent)
2007
55.8 2019
54.2
9.1 10.2
8.0 8.3
6.6 5.5 6.0
4.3 4.6
D
Native-born Native-born Foreign-born Foreign-born Native-born Foreign-born
child child child and child and child, child, no parents
and parent and parent native-born no parents present
foreign-born parent present
parent
D Data withheld to avoid disclosure.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2007 and 2019 Annual Social and Economic Supplements.
12 U.S. Census Bureau
Characteristics of Children by children, respectively. 37 Finally, with at least one foreign-born
Nativity Status Hispanic children (of any race) parent resided in a household
Taking a more detailed look at made up a much larger percent- below the poverty line, compared
children’s demographic character- age of children with at least one to 14.1 percent of children with
istics reveals differences among foreign-born parent (54.2 per- only native-born parents. Overall,
groups defined by the parent and cent) than children with native- about 93.8 percent of children
child’s nativity status. The CPS born parents (14.9 percent). were covered by health insurance
estimates that of the 73.5 million Among those with native-born in 2019. Health insurance coverage
children who lived in the Unites parents, the share of children who was more common among native-
States in 2019, the majority (69.5 were Hispanic was not statistically born children with only native-
percent) were native-born chil- different across nativity status. born parents (95.0 percent) than
dren whose parents were also For children with at least one it was for foreign-born children
native-born (Table 4). Regardless foreign-born parent, on the other living with at least one foreign-
of their parents’ nativity status, hand, native-born children were born parent (83.9 percent). Most
foreign-born children tended to more often Hispanic (56.2 per- children, regardless of their or
be older than their native-born cent) than foreign-born children their parents’ nativity status,
counterparts. 34 Among children (40.0 percent). lived in households that did not
with at least one foreign-born receive public assistance. Finally,
The number of parents in the
parent, 47.2 percent of foreign- home ownership was more com-
home also differed according to
born children were 12- to 17-years- mon among native-born families.
parental nativity status. Although
old, whereas about one-third of About two-thirds (66.8 percent)
the majority of children (70.1
native-born children were in that of native-born children with
percent) lived with two parents, 38
age group. only native-born parents lived
those who lived with at least one
in an owned home, compared to
Regardless of parental nativity foreign-born parent resided with
about one-third (31.9 percent) of
status, foreign-born children were two parents more often (82.6
foreign-born children living with
less often White than native-born percent) than children living with
at least one parent who was also
children. 35 Among children with two native-born parents (69.5
foreign-born.
native-born parents, 15.4 per- percent). 39 Living with one parent
cent of native-born children were was more common for children Parent’s Educational Attainment
Black and 1.2 percent were Asian, with native-born parents, as 25.2 by Children’s and Parental
whereas 28.0 percent of foreign- percent of children with a native- Nativity Status
born children were Black and born mother lived with one par- The educational attainment of
36.7 percent were Asian. 36 The ent, compared to 14.7 percent of parent(s) in 2019 was associated
pattern of foreign-born children children living with a foreign-born with the child’s and the parents’
more often being Black or Asian mother. nativity status. Nearly 1 in 5 (19.6
than those who were native-born Table 4 also shows that in 2019 percent) children with at least
persists among children with at the socioeconomic circumstances one foreign-born parent lived in a
least one foreign-born parent: 11.2 of children’s families differed by household in which the most edu-
percent of native-born children nativity status. Living in poverty cated parent had less than a high
were Black and 15.9 percent were was more common for children school degree, whereas fewer
Asian, compared to 21.4 percent living with a foreign-born parent, than 1 in 20 (4.5 percent) children
and 23.8 percent of foreign-born as 19.9 percent of children living with only native-born parents
lived in such a household (Table
37
Among foreign-born children with a
4). At the other end of the edu-
34
Foreign-born children with native- foreign-born parent, the percentage who
born parents are likely internationally were Black did not significantly differ from cational spectrum, children with
adopted children. the percentage who were Asian.
35
All racial groups include people of 38
Includes biological, step, and adopted
native-born parents were more
both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin, children living with two parents, regardless likely to live with a parent who
while Hispanic origin includes people of any of the parents’ sex.
race. 39
The percentage of children with
obtained a college degree than
36
Among foreign-born children with native-born parents who lived with two par- children living with at least one
native-born parents, the percentage who ents (69.5 percent) did not significantly dif-
were Black did not significantly differ from fer from the overall percentage of children
the percentage who were Asian. who lived with two parents (70.1 percent).
U.S. Census Bureau 13
Table 4.
Children’s and Parent’s Nativity¹ and Selected Characteristics: 2019²
(Numbers in thousands. Information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions is
available at <https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps/techdocs/cpsmar19.pdf>)
Children with native-born Children with at least one
parents foreign-born parent
Characteristic Native- Foreign- Native- Foreign- No
born born born born parents
Total Total child child Total child child present
Total (number) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73,520 51,250 51,080 168 19,310 16,930 2,386 2,966
Total (percent of all children). . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 69.7 69.5 0.2 26.3 23.0 3.2 4.0
Percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Age of Child
Under 6 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3 33.0 33.0 14.2 31.1 32.9 18.2 27.6
6–11 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.3 33.0 33.0 34.5 34.2 34.1 34.6 33.8
12–17 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.4 34.1 34.0 51.3 34.7 33.0 47.2 38.6
Race and Hispanic Origin of Child
White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.0 75.5 75.7 33.4 64.5 66.2 52.7 60.2
White alone, non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . 50.1 63.6 63.8 19.2 15.5 15.3 16.9 40.5
Black alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 15.5 15.4 28.0 12.4 11.2 21.4 26.4
Asian alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 1.3 1.2 36.7 16.8 15.9 23.8 2.6
Hispanic (of any race) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.5 14.9 14.9 15.3 54.2 56.2 40.0 22.6
Presence of Parents
Two parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.1 69.5 69.4 83.2 82.6 83.2 78.5 X
Mother only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.4 25.2 25.2 D 14.7 14.1 18.7 X
Father only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 5.3 5.3 D 2.7 2.6 2.7 X
Neither parent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 X X X X X X 100.0
Grandparent(s) are present . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.0 8.0 8.0 D 8.7 9.1 5.5 53.2
Education of Most Educated Parent
Less than high school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 4.5 4.5 D 19.6 19.5 20.3 X
High school degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 18.5 18.5 D 24.1 24.4 22.1 X
Some college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.0 29.6 29.6 18.3 16.6 17.3 11.7 X
Bachelor’s degree or more . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.5 47.4 47.4 75.4 39.6 38.7 45.9 X
No parents present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 X X X X X X 100.0
Marital Status of Parent(s)
Two married parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65.8 65.0 64.9 83.2 77.9 78.2 75.9 X
Two unmarried parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 4.5 4.5 0.0 4.7 5.0 2.7 X
One parent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Married, spouse absent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 1.1 1.1 D 2.1 2.0 2.8 X
Widowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.9 0.8 1.5 X
Divorced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.0 9.7 9.7 D 4.7 4.7 4.8 X
Separated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 3.5 3.5 0.0 3.4 3.1 5.5 X
Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 15.2 15.2 9.6 6.3 6.2 6.8 X
No parent present. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 X X X X X X 100.0
Poverty Status
Below 100 percent of poverty . . . . . . . . . . 16.7 14.1 14.1 9.0 19.9 19.3 24.2 41.6
100 to 199 percent of poverty . . . . . . . . . . 21.3 18.9 18.9 16.2 27.6 27.4 28.6 21.1
200 percent of poverty and above . . . . . 62.0 67.0 67.0 74.8 52.5 53.2 47.2 37.2
Health Insurance Coverage
Covered by health insurance . . . . . . . . . . . 93.8 95.0 95.0 D 91.1 92.1 83.9 90.9
Not covered by health insurance . . . . . . . 6.2 5.0 5.0 D 8.9 7.9 16.1 9.1
Household Receives Public Assistance
Receives assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 2.5 2.5 D 2.1 2.0 3.0 10.1
Does not receive assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . 97.3 97.5 97.5 D 97.9 98.0 97.0 89.9
Household Tenure
Owns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.6 66.9 66.8 79.9 51.4 54.1 31.9 62.9
Rents³ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.4 33.1 33.2 20.1 48.6 45.9 68.1 37.1
X Not applicable.
D Data withheld to avoid disclosure.
¹ A child living with any foreign-born parents is included in the category for foreign-born parent(s). Children living with a single parent are assigned
a category based on the nativity of the coresident parent. Children living with native-born parents are only living with native-born parents.
² All people under age 18, excluding group quarters, householders, subfamily reference people, and their spouses.
³ Includes those who occupy without cash payment.
Notes: The characteristics of the “parent” are usually that of the mother except in cases when the mother is not present, then it is of the father.
Details may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2019 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
14 U.S. Census Bureau
foreign-born parent (47.4 percent percent of foreign-born children stepchildren.40 Smaller differences
and 39.6 percent, respectively). lived with such a parent (it should exist between native-born and
be noted that only 0.2 percent of foreign-born children living with
Figure 6 uses the CPS to show
children were foreign-born living at least one foreign-born parent.
that the distribution of children’s
with only native-born parents). Specifically, about 38.7 percent
most educated parent also varied
These foreign-born children living of native-born children living
when the nativity statuses of
with native-born parents are likely with foreign-born parents lived
parents and children were con-
internationally adopted children, in a household in which the most
sidered jointly. Among children
and prior research documents educated parent had a bachelor’s
living with native-born parents,
that adopted children are more degree or more, whereas 45.9
fewer than half (47.4 percent) of
likely to live in higher income
native-born children resided with 40
Rose M. Kreider and Daphne
households than biological or A. Lofquist, “Adopted Children and
a parent who obtained a college
Stepchildren: 2010,” Population
degree or more, whereas 75.4 Characteristics, P20-572, U.S. Census
Bureau, Washington, DC, 2014.
Figure 6.
Children's and Parents' Nativity by Highest Parental Education Level for Children
Living With at Least One Parent: March 2019
(In percent)
Less than high school
High school degree
Some college
Bachelor's degree or more
Data withheld to avoid disclosure
4.5
19.5 20.3
18.5 18.3
22.1
24.4
29.6
11.7
17.3
75.4
45.9
47.4 38.7
Native-born child Native-born child Foreign-born child Foreign-born child
with native-born with at least one with native-born with at least one
parents foreign-born parent parents foreign-born parent
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2019 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
U.S. Census Bureau 15
Table 5.
Race and Hispanic Origin Composition of Households With Children Under 18 Years
(Numbers in thousands. Information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions is
available at <www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/technical-documentation/code-lists.html>)
2008 2018
Race and Hispanic Origin
Number Percent Number Percent
Total Households With Children Under 18 Years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,480 100.0 36,880 100.0
Racial Composition of the Household
All household members of same race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,560 92.4 33,220 90.1
Multigenerational household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,168 8.2 3,542 9.6
Mixed nativity household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,361 13.9 5,903 16.0
Contains members of different races¹ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,919 7.6 3,662 9.9
Multigenerational household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 0.8 423 1.1
Mixed nativity household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 1.5 672 1.8
Hispanic Origin Composition of the Household
All household members Hispanic, or all non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . 37,030 96.2 35,100 95.2
Multigenerational household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,324 8.6 3,744 10.2
Mixed nativity household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,701 14.8 6,248 16.9
Contains some Hispanic and some non-Hispanic members² . . . . . . 1,454 3.8 1,783 4.8
Multigenerational household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 0.4 221 0.6
Mixed nativity household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 0.6 327 0.9
¹ Defined as households in which members are of different races or at least one person is multiracial.
² Defined as households in which some members are Hispanic and some are non-Hispanic.
Notes: Multigenerational households are households consisting of three or more generations. Mixed nativity households are households in
which some household members are native-born and some are foreign-born. Details may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008 and 2018 American Community Survey, 1-year estimates.
percent of foreign-born children were interethnic42 also increased Midwest. The South and Northeast
with at least one foreign-born during that time, from 3.8 percent also had a low percentage of
parent lived in such a household. of households with children under households with children under
the age of 18 in 2008 to 4.8 per- the age of 18 that contained mem-
Racial and Ethnic Diversity Within cent in 2018. bers of different races or Hispanic
Households With Children Under
origin, with Virginia, the District of
the Age of 18 Geographic Diversity in Interracial Columbia, Florida, and Oklahoma
In both the 2008 and 2018 ACS, or Interethnic Households With
being exceptions in the South,
Children Under the Age of 18
the majority of households with and Connecticut being an excep-
children under the age of 18 were Figure 7 uses ACS data to map tion in the Northeast. The West
composed of members who were the percentage of households had the most states with higher
the same race and Hispanic origin with children under the age of percentages of interracial and
(Table 5). However, the percent- 18 that were interracial or inter- interethnic households with chil-
age of households with children ethnic by state compared to the dren under the age of 18 than the
under the age of 18 that were national level. At the national level, national average. Nine Western
interracial41 increased from 7.6 13.2 percent of households with states (Alaska, Arizona, California,
percent of all households in 2008 children under the age of 18 con- Colorado, Hawaii, Nevada,
to 9.9 percent of all households tained members of different races New Mexico, Oregon, and
in 2018. Similarly, the percentage or Hispanic origin. The percentage Washington) had a higher per-
of households with children that of households with children under centage of interracial or inter-
the age of 18 that were interracial ethnic households with children
or interethnic was lowest in the under the age of 18 than the
41
Defined as households in which mem- 42
Defined as households in which
national average. Higher percent-
bers are of different races or at least one some members are Hispanic and some ages of interracial and interethnic
person is multiracial. non-Hispanic.
16 U.S. Census Bureau
Figure 7.
AK Percentage of Households With Children Under 18 That
Contain Members of Different Races or Origin: 2018
0 500 Miles
WA
MT ME
ND
MN VT
OR
ID NH MA
SD WI NY
MI
WY CT
RI
IA PA
NJ
NE
NV OH
UT IL IN !!
DE
! !
!
!
MD
!
CA WV
! !
CO
! !
!
!
!
! !
! !
VA
!
!
KS
!
!
MO
!
!
!
!
KY
!
DC
!
!
NC
TN
AZ OK
NM AR SC
Statistical significance
AL GA as compared to the
MS
national average
Statistically higher
TX LA
No difference
Statistically lower
FL
U.S. percentage is 13.2
Regional boundary
0 100 Miles
HI
0 100 Miles
Note: Information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, and definitions is available at <www.census.gov/programs-surveys
/acs/technical-documentation/code-lists.html>.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2018 American Community Survey, 1-year estimates.
married couple households in the members of different race or SUMMARY
West, as well as increases in the Hispanic origin groups.43
The living arrangements of
percentage of married couple
children continue to be diverse.
households that were interracial
Although most children lived
or interethnic in the West between
with two married parents in 2019,
2000 to 2012–2016, could help 43
Tallese D. Johnson and Rose Kreider,
“Mapping Interracial/Interethnic Married- the number and type of family
explain the higher percentages of Couple Households in the United States: members children live with often
households with children under 2010,” poster presented at the Annual
Meeting of the Population Association of changes as they age. Living with
the age of 18 that contained America, New Orleans, LA, April 12, 2013,
unmarried parents, for example, is
<www.census.gov/library/working-papers
/2013/demo/sehsd-2013-19.html>. Also, most common for children under
Brittany Rico, Rose Kreider, and Lydia
Anderson, “Examining Change in the
the age of 1. As these children get
Percent of Married-Couple Households older, their unmarried parents may
that are Interracial and Interethnic: 2000 to
2012–2016,” poster presented at the Annual
decide to marry or dissolve their
Meeting of the Population Association of relationship, creating a new living
America, Denver, CO, April 26, 2018,
<www.census.gov/library/working-papers arrangement for the child.
/2018/demo/SEHSD-WP2018-11.html>.
U.S. Census Bureau 17
Living arrangements are impor- them is reported in an interview at circumstances over time. The data
tant to study, as they can have their parents’ home. Because the in this report were collected from
implications for the household’s CPS is a household survey, people the first wave of the 2014 SIPP
economic well-being. Children who are homeless and not living Panel. Although the main focus of
living with two unmarried par- in shelters are not included in the the SIPP is information on labor
ents lived in households with an sample. force participation, jobs, income,
income below the poverty line and participation in federal assis-
The CPS ASEC collects data in
more often than children living tance programs, information on
February, March, and April each
with married parents. other topics related to the well-
year, asking detailed questions
being of individuals and families is
Finally, children’s living arrange- that categorize income into over
also collected.
ments have become more racially 50 sources. The key purpose of
and ethnically diverse as the share the survey is to provide timely ACCURACY OF THE
(and number) of children living in and comprehensive estimates of ESTIMATES
interracial and interethnic house- income, poverty, and health insur-
Statistics from surveys are sub-
holds increased from 2008 to ance and to measure change in
ject to sampling and nonsampling
2018. Likewise, living in a multi- these national-level estimates.
error. All comparisons presented
generational or mixed nativity
This report also presents data in this report have taken sampling
household became more common
from the 2008 and 2018 American error into account and are signifi-
for children during this period,
Community Surveys. The popula- cant at the 90 percent confidence
reflecting continued immigration
tion represented (the population level, unless otherwise indicated.
to the United States.
universe) in the ACS is the popu- This means the 90 percent confi-
SOURCE OF THE DATA lation living in both households dence interval for the difference
and group quarters—that is, the between the estimates being
The data in this report are from resident population. The group compared does not include zero.
the Annual Social and Economic quarters population consists of Nonsampling errors in surveys
Supplement (ASEC) of the 2007 the institutionalized population may be attributed to a variety of
and 2019 Current Population (such as people in correctional sources, such as how the survey
Surveys (CPS), the 2008 and 2018 institutions or nursing homes) and is designed, how respondents
American Community Surveys the noninstitutionalized popula- interpret questions, how able and
(ACS), and the 2014 Survey of tion (most of whom are in college willing respondents are to pro-
Income and Program Participation dormitories). For tabulation pur- vide correct answers, and how
(SIPP). poses in this report, ACS data are accurately the answers are coded
The CPS is the longest-running shown only for the population liv- and classified. The Census Bureau
survey conducted by the Census ing in households. This report uses employs quality control proce-
Bureau. The CPS is a household the 2008 and 2018 1-year data. dures throughout the production
survey primarily used to collect process—including overall survey
Finally, the report includes data
employment data. The sample uni- design, question wording, review
from the 2014 Survey of Income
verse for the basic CPS consists of interviewers’ and coders’ work,
and Program Participation (SIPP).
of the resident civilian, noninstitu- and statistical review of reports—
The population represented (the
tionalized population of the to minimize these errors.
population universe) in the SIPP
United States. People in institu- is the civilian, noninstitutionalized The CPS weighting procedure
tions (such as prisons, long-term population living in the United uses ratio estimation, whereby
care hospitals) and nursing homes States. Each SIPP panel follows sample estimates are adjusted
are not eligible to be interviewed individuals for several years, pro- to independent estimates of the
in the CPS. Students living in dor- viding monthly data that measure national population by age, race,
mitories are included in the esti- changes in household and fam- sex, and Hispanic origin. This
mates only if information about ily composition and economic weighting partially corrects for
18 U.S. Census Bureau
bias due to under-coverage, but of four significant digits for disclo- Demographic Statistical
biases may still be present; for sure protection purposes. Methods Division by e-mail at
example, when people who are <mahdi.s.sundukchi@census.gov>.
More information on sampling and
missed by the survey differ from
estimation methods, confiden- Additional information on the
those interviewed in ways other
tiality protection, and sampling SIPP can be found at the following
than age, race, sex, and Hispanic
and nonsampling errors, is avail- websites: <www.census.gov
origin. How this weighting pro-
able in the 2018 ACS Accuracy /programs-surveys/sipp.html>
cedure affects other variables in
of the Data document located at (main SIPP website) and <www2
the survey is not precisely known.
<www2.census.gov/programs-sur .census.gov/programs-surveys
All of these considerations affect
veys/acs/tech_docs/accuracy /sipp/tech-documentation
comparisons across different sur-
/ACS_Accuracy_of_Data_2018 /methodology/2014-SIPP-Panel
veys or data sources. Additionally,
.pdf>. -Users-Guide.pdf> (SIPP User’s
CPS estimates are rounded to
Guide).
a maximum of four significant The SIPP weighting procedure
digits for disclosure protection uses ratio estimation, whereby ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
purposes. sample estimates are adjusted
to independent estimates of the The authors thank Brittany Rico
Further information about the CPS and Brian Knop for their assis-
national population by age, race,
ASEC and the source and accu- tance in the creation of this report.
sex, and Hispanic origin. This
racy of the estimates is available
weighting partially corrects for
at <www2.census.gov/programs CONTACTS
bias due to under-coverage, but
-surveys/cps/techdocs/cpsmar19
biases may still be present when Contact the Census Bureau’s
.pdf>.
people who are missed by the Customer Service Center at
The final ACS population esti- survey differ from those inter- 1-800-923-8282 (toll-free) or navi-
mates are adjusted in the weight- viewed in ways other than the age, gate to <https://ask.census.gov>
ing procedure for coverage error race, sex, and Hispanic origin. How for further information. For further
by controlling specific survey this weighting procedure affects information on the content of this
estimates to independent popu- other variables in the survey is report, contact:
lation controls by age, race, sex, not precisely known. All of these
Lydia R. Anderson
and Hispanic origin. The final ACS considerations affect comparisons
<Lydia.R.Anderson@census.gov>
estimates of housing units are across different surveys or data
controlled to be consistent with sources. Additionally, SIPP esti- Paul F. Hemez
independent estimates of total mates are rounded to a maximum <Paul.Hemez@census.gov>
housing. This weighting partially of four significant digits for disclo-
Rose M. Kreider
corrects for bias due to over- or sure protection purposes.
<Rose.Kreider@census.gov>
under-coverage, but biases may
More information on the source of
still be present; for example, when Fertility and Family Statistics
the data and accuracy of the esti-
people who are missed by the Branch 301-763-2416
mates including standard errors
survey differ from those inter-
and confidence intervals is avail-
viewed in ways other than age, SUGGESTED CITATION
able at <www2.census.gov
race, sex, and Hispanic origin. How Anderson, Lydia R., Paul F. Hemez,
/programs-surveys/sipp/tech
this weighting procedure affects and Rose M. Kreider, “Living
-documentation/complete
other variables in the survey is Arrangements of Children: 2019,”
-documents/2014/2014_SIPP
not precisely known. All of these Current Population Reports,
_Wave _1_Nonresponse_Bias
considerations affect comparisons P70-174, U.S. Census Bureau,
_Report.pdf> (2014 Panel Source
across different surveys or data Washington, DC, 2021.
and Accuracy Statements), or
sources. Additionally, ACS esti-
by contacting Mahdi Sundukchi
mates are rounded to a maximum
of the U.S. Census Bureau’s
U.S. Census Bureau 19
Appendix Table.
Margins of Error for Table 5, Race and Hispanic Origin Composition of Households With
Children Under 18 Years
(Numbers in thousands. More information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions is
available at <www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/technical-documentation/code-lists.html>)
2008 2018
Characteristic
Number Percent Number Percent
Total households with children under 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 X 85 X
Racial composition of the household
All household members of same race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 0.1 79 0.1
Multigenerational household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 0.1 32 0.1
Mixed nativity household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 0.1 44 0.1
Contains members of different races¹ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 0.1 36 0.1
Multigenerational household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Z 11 Z
Mixed nativity household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Z 15 Z
Hispanic origin composition of the household
All household members Hispanic, or all non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . 83 0.1 83 0.1
Multigenerational household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 0.1 34 0.1
Mixed nativity household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 0.1 45. 0.1
Contains some Hispanic and some non-Hispanic members² . . . . . . 20 0.1 22. 0.1
Multigenerational household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Z 8. Z
Mixed nativity household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Z 10 Z
X Not applicable.
Z Entry is less than half of a unit of measurement from zero and there is a meaningful difference between an actual zero and a rounded
zero for the particular statistics.
¹ Defined as households in which members are of different races or at least one person is multiracial.
² Defined as households in which some members are Hispanic and some are non-Hispanic.
Note: Multigenerational households are households consisting of three or more generations. Mixed nativity households are households
where some household members are native-born and some are foreign-born.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008 and 2018 American Community Survey, 1-year estimates.
20 U.S. Census Bureau
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