Testimony of Marc H. Morial, National Urban League — Building a Modern Economic Foundation
Summary
Testimony of Marc H. Morial, President and CEO, National Urban League, before the Select Committee on Economic Disparity and Fairness in Growth, titled Building a Modern Economic Foundation: Economic Security and Income Support for 21st Century America. The heading is dated Thursday, June 28, 2022. It says the National Urban League has a 112-year history and 92 affiliates serving 300 communities across 36 states and the District of Columbia. It says the expanded and monthly Child Tax Credit lifted 3.7 million children out of poverty as of December 2021, and that in 2021 emergency rental assistance grantees made 3.8 million payments and spent or obligated more than $25 billion. The testimony expresses concern about programs that will end when the Public Health Emergency ends.
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“Testimony of Marc H. Morial, National Urban League — Building a Modern Economic Foundation.”
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Testimony of Marc H. Morial
President and CEO, National Urban League1
Select Committee on Economic Disparity and Fairness in Growth
United States House of Representatives
“Building a Modern Economic Foundation: Economic Security and Income Support for 21st Century
America”
Thursday, June 28, 2022
Introduction
Chairman Himes, Ranking Member Steil, and Members of the Select Committee on Economic Disparity
and Fairness in Growth, thank you for your invitation to participate in this hearing. My name is Marc
Morial, and I am the President and CEO of the National Urban League, an organization with a 112-year
history of advocating for economic empowerment, equality, and social justice for African Americans and
other historically underserved groups.
With 92 affiliates serving 300 communities across 36 states and the District of Columbia, the Urban League
spearheads the development of social programs and advocates for policies and services that close the
equality gap. At the community level, the National Urban League and its affiliates provide direct services
to and act as community navigators for more than two million people annually. I appreciate the
opportunity to share the perspective of our Urban League Movement on “Building a Modern Economic
Foundation: Economic Security and Income Support for 21st Century America”
At the National Urban League, we like to think of economic programs as serving two purposes: One
purpose is to provide economic security when people are in poverty and facing difficult financial
circumstances. Programs like the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), Temporary
Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), and housing assistance, including public housing and voucher
programs, are lifesaving in the short term, preventing the catastrophes of homelessness and starvation.
They also have long-lasting impacts, including lifting families out of poverty and providing opportunities
for more permanent economic security and power.
There are also programs specifically designed to provide an “economic ladder” out of poverty and low
wage jobs and into the middle class and higher paid positions. These include programs like the Paycheck
Protection Program (PPP), provided during the pandemic, as well as other support for small businesses,
apprenticeship and other workforce education programs, Pell grants for higher education, and more.
While these programs do not put food on the table immediately, they do play a vital role in providing
opportunities for upward mobility.
1 NAT’L URB. LEAGUE, https://nul.org/our-team (last visited July 26, 2022).
Many programs can serve both purposes if designed and implemented well, like the stimulus checks
provided to individuals making under $75,000. Folks who were facing difficult times used these checks to
survive – to buy food, pay rent, and pay bills. Folks who were doing okay used this money to pay for
education, jump start a business, and start saving for a down payment on a home. Both types of programs
are vital to ensuring the survival and prosperity of our most vulnerable communities.
One of the pillars of a great nation is her respect and care for her people. If we in the United States wish
to consider ourselves a great nation, we absolutely cannot leave people behind. We must offer support
and opportunity for all Americans, including and especially those who have been systemically excluded
and historically marginalized.
Economic Security and COVID-19
Our most recent national crisis, the COVID-19 pandemic, exacerbated and manifested this need for
support. Congress met this need with an expansion of many fundamental economic security programs. As
we saw workers lose their jobs and/or become unable to work, expanded unemployment insurance (UI)
for those eligible became a lifeline. The 15 percent maximum SNAP benefit increase as well as some other
flexibilities kept millions safe from hunger. The Pandemic Emergency Assistance Fund plussed up TANF,
providing help for families to cover costs for food, formula, diapers, childcare, and more. Expanded Earned
Income Tax Credits (EITC) helped the working poor weather tough times. The expanded and monthly Child
Tax Credit (CTC) was unprecedented in its reach, lifting 3.7 million children out of poverty as of December
2021.2 To prevent eviction, the federal government provided emergency rental assistance (ERA)—in 2021,
ERA grantees made 3.8 million payments to eligible households and spent or obligated more than $25
billion.3
Unfortunately, these life-saving programs have since returned to pre-pandemic levels or need additional
funding to continue—even as the pandemic persists, inflation increases, and our economy remains in
recovery. Of additional concern are the programs that will end when the Public Health Emergency (PHE)
ends. We support the recent extension of the PHE to October and continue to have concerns about the
cliff many will face when programs like SNAP Emergency Allotments and temporary expansion for college
students end and the three-month time limit on food assistance for un- and underemployed individuals
resumes. While this hearing does not cover health programs, people will face additional financial
challenges as expanded Medicaid coverage and Advanced Premium Tax Credits (APTC) expire.
Additionally, even as we come out of the pandemic, we face new challenges. One million Americans have
been pushed out of work due to the effects of long COVID according to the Government Accountability
2 Leah Hamilton et al., The Impacts of the 2021 Expanded Child Tax Credit on Family Employment, Nutrition, and Financial Well-
being: Findings from the Social Policy Institute’s Child Tax Credit Panel (Wave 2), BROOKINGS INST. (April 2022),
https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Child-Tax-Credit-Report-Final_Updated.pdf.
3 New Treasury Data Shows Over 80% of Emergency Rental Assistance Delivered to Lowest-Income Households (Feb. 24, 2022),
https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0606.
Testimony of Marc H. Morial before House Select Committee on Economic Disparity and Fairness in Growth 2
Office.4 Victims of long COVID have been infected with the virus that causes COVID-19 and
experience long-term effects from their infection including: shortness of breath, “brain fog,” fever, and
joint pain.5 These effects can last weeks, months, or even years. This not only affects individuals but also
impacts our economy as a whole: Researchers have shown that the United States faces up to $2.6 trillion
in economic losses due to long COVID.6 We must take this reality into account as we rebuild our economy
and ensure we don’t end pandemic era supports too quickly or otherwise allow the pandemic to
permanently widen the gap between the haves and the have nots. We also cannot go back to pre-
pandemic inequities.
We must learn from the lessons of this crisis, and the lessons of the crises that preceded it - Katrina, the
subprime mortgage crises, and others. What did we do right in our response? What could we have done
better? Where did we do too little? And yes, perhaps, where did we do too much? But in all of it, we must
center the human experience. I am concerned about inflation, but we also cannot underestimate the
consequences of not having poured resources into our economy and social supports and of not doing it
quick enough. Given the size and speed of the COVID-19 global pandemic, we could have had a depression.
The average White American family has $8500 in savings that can be used in an emergency, the average
Latino family has only $1950, and the average Black family has only $1510.7 None of those savings could
have met the needs of this pandemic. We could have had mass poverty, hunger, and homelessness to a
degree this nation has not seen in modern memory. As catastrophic as our pandemic death rate was,
surely it would have been higher. As much as generational wealth suffered during the pandemic, surely
the gap between those who can build wealth for their families and those who are barely making ends
meet would have widened further.
Thus, in our recovery from the pandemic and now from inflation, we must remember to center the human
element. We must focus on Main Street. How do we ensure the American people recover stronger, in the
long term? How do we meet them where they are? How do we target those who need it most? How do
we ensure that we are not just helping people survive, but we are helping them stabilize and strengthen
their economic positions, so that when the next crisis arises, we are in a better position than we were for
the current crisis?
4 U.S. GOV’T ACCOUNTABILITY OFF., GAO-22-105666, Science & Tech Spotlight: Long COVID, (Mar. 2, 2022),
https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-22-105666.
5 CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION, Long COVID or Post-COVID Conditions, https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-
ncov/long-term-effects/index.html#:~:text=Some%20people%20who%20have%20been,(PCC)%20or%20long%20COVID (last
updated July 11, 2022).
6 David Cutler & Lawrence Summers, The COVID-19 Pandemic and the $16 Trillion Virus, JAMA NETWORK (Oct. 12, 2020),
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2771764.
7 Karen Bennett, The Average Amount in U.S. Savings Accounts – How Does Your Cash Stack Up? (Feb. 8, 2022),
https://www.bankrate.com/banking/savings/savings-account-average-balance/.
Testimony of Marc H. Morial before House Select Committee on Economic Disparity and Fairness in Growth 3
Recommendations for Improvement
So, how do we do it? The National Urban League, based on our experience on the ground in urban
communities across the nation, has a series of recommendations for this committee to explore to improve
economic security programs. Many of these recommendations are reflected in our 2017 Mainstreet
Marshall Plan, which is being submitted alongside this statement.8 We have been doing this work for a
long time.
We must invest in social safety programs, but in addition to simply investing in the number of people
served — which is of paramount importance — it is just as important to ensure each program has the
resources needed to reach the people they aim to serve, those who need it most. We have to approach
each social safety net program similar to how corporate America approaches the roll out of a new product.
We cannot simply expect those who need the programs to find them. We need to market the programs,
ensure they reach their intended audiences, and make them easy to use.
I have seen firsthand what a great impact modernizing and improving economic security programs can
have on the people who receive them. During my time as Mayor of New Orleans, SNAP transitioned to
electronic cards and the effect was profound – the program became so much easier for people to use,
and increased access to food security.
It is also important that these programs have comprehensive marketing and outreach campaigns to make
eligible participants aware of their existence, eligibility requirements, and how to apply. As Mayor, I would
ensure my communications and marketing team sat at the table of every policy discussion from Day 1 –
not merely just at the end – to ensure we considered how the program would reach those it was created
to assist. We can no longer afford to be naïve about the importance of outreach and messaging. To do
otherwise is malpractice. Every American needs to be educated on the resources available to them,
particularly in times of national and global crises. Therefore, the federal government needs to use every
resource available, including television, radio, social media ads, and comprehensive in person, landline,
and online assets, to reach this goal.
To this point, as stated in the National Urban League’s Lewis Latimer Plan for Digital Equity and Inclusion,9
which we are also submitting for the record, we must ensure that everyone in this country has access to
affordable, reliable broadband. Low-income families are disproportionately left on the wrong side of the
digital divide, and this impacts these households’ ability to easily access the support they need from these
vital government assistance programs. Congress recognized that broadband is a necessity by funding the
Affordable Connectivity Program (ACP). We support the efforts of the Federal Communications
8 NAT’L URB. LEAGUE, Main St. Marshall Plan: From Poverty to Prosperity (2017),
https://soba.iamempowered.com/sites/soba.iamempowered.com/files/main_street_marshall_plan_2017.pdf.
9 NAT’L URB. LEAGUE, The Lewis Latimer Plan for Digital Equity and Inclusion, https://nul.org/program/lewis-latimer-
plan#:~:text=The%20Lewis%20Latimer%20Plan%20for%20Digital%20Equity%20and%20Inclusion,-
Inspired%20by%20the&text=Getting%20everyone%20connected,development%2C%20health%20care%2C%20and%20educatio
n (last visited July 26, 2022).
Testimony of Marc H. Morial before House Select Committee on Economic Disparity and Fairness in Growth 4
Commission and the Biden Administration as they work to champion and perfect ACP, which provides a
subsidy for purchasing a high-speed internet connection and a connected device such as a laptop or tablet.
Moreover, as we work to get the word out about ACP, we must also advocate for a sustainable funding
mechanism for a more permanent program because our most marginalized households will always need
a connection to participate in our society and the economy. The greatest threat to a new program like
ACP is under-utilization due to lack of awareness and use in the communities that have been making
sacrifices in other parts of their lives to remain connected. We must ensure people know how to
comfortably navigate the internet and use it to benefit their lives. This is why broader broadband adoption
efforts that will be funded through NTIA’s Broadband Equity Access and Deployment (BEAD) Program and
the Digital Equity Act in this Congress’s Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act are so important, just as it
remains important to invest in broadband availability and affordability.
As was also detailed in our Latimer Plan, we also need government information technology systems to be
upgraded and maintained so they can improve government service delivery. User-centric design
interfaces must be expanded, government websites must be optimized for mobile use, “offline modes”
should be created for government apps, and there should also be a one-stop shop for people to access
and share personal data held by government agencies.
And as the government prioritizes and implements these practices, we must also ensure we have options
for those without access to broadband, devices, or the digital skills needed to navigate these economic
security programs online. There must be time-efficient ways to apply and get assistance in person for
those who remain unconnected and for those who are rightfully concerned about privacy and security
online.
Our third recommendation is increased funding and resources for community navigators – trusted,
community-based organizations (like the National Urban League) who can help members of the
community understand which programs they could apply for and assist in the application process for any
appropriate programs. In particular, national intermediary organizations can play a key role as navigators,
as they work in and with communities but also have the support of a national organization for assistance
and a national network to learn best practices and share innovative ideas.
Our remaining recommendations are program-specific:
For the Child Tax Credit and Earned Income Tax Credit, we encourage lawmakers to permanently
expand these credits and make them monthly payments to continue to help the millions of
American families who continue to struggle with the changing economic challenges we currently
face.
For Housing programs, including public housing and programs like Housing Choice Vouchers, we
ask you to increase the supply of eligible units and lift the limits on participation so that persons
who qualify can access safe, affordable housing.
For SNAP, to meet the ongoing pandemic crises and address the crisis that pre-existed the
pandemic, we should maintain the additional flexibilities and eligibilities made during the PHE.
Testimony of Marc H. Morial before House Select Committee on Economic Disparity and Fairness in Growth 5
For TANF, we need federal minimum eligibility standards, so the state a family lives in does not
determine whether they face extreme hardship or have needed support.
Similarly, we must ensure uniformity across unemployment insurance systems: our economy is
national, and most businesses work across state lines. It is important that our unemployment
support is responsive to the way our economy works.
Additionally, we should create a program similar to PPP to support small businesses by keeping
them open and give them an opportunity to grow using additional resources. This would have an
especially significant impact on Black-owned businesses, 90 percent of which are one-person
operations.
To guarantee that workers have access to the training and education needed to succeed in the
workforce, we must ensure higher education is affordable and accessible, including by funding
Pell grants at levels that keep up with the cost of tuition and living. We must also invest in
apprenticeships and other workforce development programs to ensure they are accessible, high
quality, and include wrap-around supports and services to help with completion. 10
Increased federal funding levels are required across the board to ensure our economic security and ladder
programs are providing the necessary level of support to sustain folks during times of hardship and
provide a pathway to stability.
And, finally, we need to address a root cause of much of our nation’s need: wage stagnation, inadequate
workforce development, and a workplace that does not meet the needs of the modern family. Many social
safety net programs act as a subsidy for low-wage work and our failure to invest in the future of work.
Therefore, we encourage Congress to get the job done of making the minimum wage a living wage, of
investing in higher education, apprenticeship, and workforce development programs, and providing for
paid family leave and medical leave. Each of these programs would benefit all Americans – women,
communities of color, and communities that have been harmed by inequitable trade deals and left behind
by automation.
Conclusion
We support the work of this committee to explore economic disparities and determine a way forward
that makes our economy fairer and more equitable. The National Urban League stands ready to work with
this committee and its members on this important mission, and I look forward to answering any questions
you may have.
10
See NAT’L URB. LEAGUE, PROJECT READY, https://nul.org/program/project-ready (last visited July 26, 2022); NAT’L URB. LEAGUE,
URBAN APPRENTICESHIP JOBS PROGRAM, https://nul.org/program/urban-apprenticeship-jobs-program (last visited July 26, 2022).
Testimony of Marc H. Morial before House Select Committee on Economic Disparity and Fairness in Growth 6
A NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE PUBLICATION
From Poverty to Prosperity
To learn more, visit www.stateofblackamerica.org.
2
A MESSAGE FROM NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE PRESIDENT AND CEO MARC H. MORIAL:
It is time for the nation to treat its urban communities and cities as the jewels
that they are. Our cities and urban communities are the economic drivers of the
nation. They are where our great universities are situated, where our great cultural
institutions exist, the center of the hopes, aspirations, and diversity of our nation.
They define America to the world. We are inspired by this undeniable reality to
propose a comprehensive plan to rebuild and accelerate the growth of America’s
urban communities and its people – and by doing so, we accelerate the growth and progress of the
nation as a whole.
History teaches us some powerful lessons. Nearly 70 years have passed since the post-World War
II economic recovery initiative known as the Marshall Plan spurred the fastest period of growth in
European history. Industrial and agricultural production skyrocketed. The poverty and starvation of
the immediate postwar years disappeared, and Western Europe embarked upon an unprecedented
two decades of growth that saw standards of living increase dramatically.
In the intervening years, the National Urban League has sought to replicate that economic success
story in America’s impoverished inner cities. Whitney M. Young, who served as executive director
from 1961 to 1971, first proposed a domestic Marshall Plan in 1964. Many elements of his plan, which
called for $145 billion in spending over 10 years, were incorporated into President Lyndon B. Johnson’s
War on Poverty legislation.
Enthusiasm for the social safety net waned over the 1970s and 1980s, however, in the 1990 edition of
the State of Black America, National Urban League President John Jacob again called for an urban
Marshall Plan. “America can’t compete if she continues to warehouse a significant proportion of her
work force in poverty and ignorance,” he said. “And she cannot compete without investing in human
resources.”
In 2016, in recognition of the 40th anniversary of the State of Black America, the National Urban
League reiterated the need for a bold and comprehensive plan to lift urban communities out of
poverty and stimulate their economic growth, and embark on the development of the Main Street
Marshall Plan.
African Americans were disproportionately battered by the Great Recession and have benefited least
from the fragile economic recovery that followed. The Black unemployment rate remains double the
rate for whites. Black Americans continue to lag behind in wealth, income and homeownership, and
across all educational levels.
The Main Street Marshall Plan: From Poverty to Shared Prosperity is a forward-leaning investment
of $4 trillion over 10 years - $2 trillion for physical infrastructure such as roads, bridges and
buildings, and $2 trillion for human development, such as education, job training and health
insurance. The Main Street Marshall Plan is aimed not only at combating poverty but at promoting
equality and eliminating disparities.
America must unite behind policies that drive economic recovery not only for African Americans
but for urban communities and all low-income and working class Americans.
MAIN STREET MARSHALL PLAN
What follows is an executive
summary of the Main Street
Marshall Plan. The full detailed
whitepaper is available at
www.stateofblackamerica.org.
CONTENTS
A Message from the
President
Marc H. Morial
Jobs and Economy
Small Business &
Entrepreneurship
Education and Children
Affordable Housing,
Homeownership and
Asset Building
Health
Justice, Voting & Civic
Engagement
National Urban League
Affiliates
4
JOBS AND ECONOMY
The United States economy has emerged from the depths of the Great Recession in an
impressive fashion; approximately 11.3 million jobs have been added, with unprecedented
job growth for 75 consecutive months. Yet African-American unemployment, at 8.1%,
remains nearly twice the white unemployment rate of 4.1%, a situation which has been
true for far too long, particularly among youth ages 16-24.
RECOMMENDATIONS
• Dramatically increase funding for job training and the Workforce Innovation and
Opportunity Act, target funding to adult re-entry, and youth and older workers
workforce training programs administered through national and regional intermediary
community-based organizations, as well as municipal governments.
• Enact a comprehensive summer youth employment initiative which creates five million
paid summer jobs for urban, suburban and rural youth.
• Enact comprehensive apprenticeship programs which provide opportunities across all
economic sectors for youth and young adults.
Enact a comprehensive infrastructure initiative that rebuilds the nation’s roads,
bridges, rails, water systems, parks, community facilities, affordable housing and
broadband. Such an initiative should maximize public investment and leverage private
dollars to create millions of jobs, as well as business opportunities for American-based
businesses both large and small. Such an infrastructure initiative should meet three
conditions:
a. Maximized opportunities for minority- and women-owned businesses
b. A workforce development and job training program to bring millions of
youth and young adults into the construction industry for the first time
c. Investments in schools, libraries, community centers, recreation facilities,
parks, housing and broadband internet access
… and represent a forward-leaning 21st century.
• Enacting a federal living wage of $15 per hour, indexing future increases to inflation.
Absent federal legislative action to increase the federal minimum wage, states and
municipalities should continue their efforts to increase the minimum wage in their
jurisdictions to a living wage.
• Reauthorizing and expanding the Earned Income Tax Credit.
MAIN STREET MARSHALL PLAN
5
SMALL BUSINESS &
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Entrepreneurship and minority businesses are critical to the future well-being of America,
to its economic survival, and to maintain global competitive advantage:
According to the SBA’s Office of Advocacy, in 2012, eight million minority-owned
businesses (Black, Hispanic, Asian, and American Indian) contributed $1.38 trillion in
revenue and 7.2 million jobs to the economy. During the economic recession – from 2007
– 2012 – a net two million minority-owned businesses were created, while a net one million
non-minority-owned businesses closed.
Despite this, MBEs have failed to realize their full economic potential. Although census
data shows that Black-owned businesses are growing in number at a faster rate than for
any other group:
• 97% of Black-owned businesses had annual receipts greater than $250,000 per year
• 85% of Black-owned businesses had greater than 10 employees
• Black-owned businesses generate 43 cents on the dollar compared to white-owned
firms
RECOMMENDATIONS
A. INCREASE ACCESS TO CAPITAL FOR SMALL, MINORITY- AND WOMEN-OWNED
BUSINESSES
• Expand public and private support for community development financial institutions
(CDFIs) who lend to small, minority- and women-owned businesses.
• Reform and expand incentives for private equity, hedge funds and asset managers to
increase capital made available to small, minority- and women-owned businesses.
• Enforce federal requirements that mandate federal departments to increase
contracting and procurement opportunities for small, minority- and women-owned
businesses.
• Reform the SBA in order to increase access to capital for small, minority- and women-
owned businesses.
• Maintain the provisions of the Protecting Americans from Tax Hikes Act of 2015 (the
PATH Act) and support a permanent authorization and expansion of New Market Tax
Credits.
• Protect the provision within the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer
Protection Act that requires banks to gather information about applicants for
commercial loans so that fair lending laws may be enforced and community
development needs and opportunities of women-owned, minority owned, and small
businesses may be identified.
• Increase funding for the Economic Development Administration and the Minority
Business Development Agency.
• Promote and expand public-private partnerships like the National Urban League
Entrepreneurship Centers model and the Goldman Sachs 10,000 Small Businesses
NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE
6
• Reform credit scoring models so that qualified small business owners have the
opportunity to access affordable and sustainable business capital.
• Continue funding for community development financial Institutions.
• Expand micro lending and revolving credit/receivables financing vehicles tailored for
small businesses.
• Reduce regulatory burdens on community banks and minority-owned banks.
• Decrease requirements for collateral so that qualified small business owners have the
opportunity to access affordable and sustainable business capital.
• Promote online lending platforms that have been vetted for price gouging and
crowdfunding vehicles that are trustworthy.
• Incentivize large banks to partner with Black-owned banks.
• Increase the number of American businesses that have viable and effective supplier
diversity initiatives.
B. IMPROVE FINANCIAL LITERACY OF SMALL BUSINESS OWNERS
• Promote entrepreneurial education programs through Small Business Administration
and Minority Business Development Agency.
• Continue federal funding for non-profit technical assistance programs such as the
National Urban League Entrepreneurship Center Program.
• Establish a permanent minority small business technical assistance fund so that
minority small businesses receive the technical assistance they need from trusted
nonprofits.
C. ELIMINATE DISCRIMINATORY PRACTICES AND EXPAND OPPORTUNITIES FOR MINORITY-
OWNED SMALL BUSINESSES
• Protect the provision in the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection
Act which mandates establishment within all covered departments of the Office of
Minority and Women Inclusion.
• Streamline the SBA’s Business Development Program and other government
certification processes so that qualified small business owners have the opportunity
to access government contracts.
• Increase procurement goals and set-asides so that qualified small business owners
have the opportunity to access government contracts.
• Permanently eliminate SBA loan fees so that small business owners have the
opportunity to access SBA loans.
• Allow trusted nonprofits to become SBA micro loan lenders, in less than one year.
• Reauthorize Export-Import Bank so that American small businesses have the
opportunity to do business overseas.
• Increase state and municipal procurement goals and set-asides so that qualified small
business owners have the opportunity to access government contracts.
MAIN STREET MARSHALL PLAN
7
EDUCATION & CHILDREN
In the United States, public education is the major common system we offer families,
children, and young people for equalizing opportunity. The United States is unique among
developed nations in offering pre-K through post-secondary systems of public schools
and institutions that are open to all students. But the nation’s institutions have struggled
to provide not only equitable access to high-quality settings, teaching and opportunity,
but also excellence to all students despite where they live, their background, or the
amount their parents earn. In too many cases, community and family income are all too
accurate predictors of the kinds of educational investments and outcomes students,
families and communities can expect.
However, the National Urban League is still convinced of the power of education as the
“great equalizer.”
RECOMMENDATIONS
A. DEEPEN AND EXPAND THE INVESTMENT IN PUBLIC EDUCATION
• Double Title I funding and prevent the funds from evolving into a block grant, so that
students, communities, and schools receive adequate funding to produce better
college and career outcomes.
• Increase funding for Student Support and Academic Enrichment Grants to $1
billion dollars, so that states and districts can provide students with a well-rounded
education, strengthen school conditions for learning, and improve the effective use of
technology in education.
• Fully fund the Hawkins Centers of Excellence program, which would provide grants
to minority-serving institutions that prepare teachers to improve their programs, and
increase the number of minority teachers in the profession.
B. EVERY CHILD GETS A GREAT EARLY START
• Increase funding for the Head Start program to $10 billion so all eligible families can
access it.
• Expand the ESSA pre-K program, so that every child has access to a high-quality, full-
day pre-K program.
• Professionalize the early childhood and child care workforce by encouraging career
lattices for current childcare workers, certification and salary increases in the field.
NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE
8
C. PLACE CREDENTIALS, CAREERS AND COLLEGE DEGREES WITHIN REACH FOR ALL
FEDERAL
• Reauthorize the Higher Education Act with an emphasis on driving innovation,
addressing student loans and student debt, accountability and supporting low-
income and first-generation student access, attainment and completion.
• Reauthorize the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act with $1 billion
dollars in funding supports for CTE innovation, building rigorous and high-quality 21st
century career and technical education coursework, content, standards, professional
development and student pathways.
• Invest $60 billion over 10 years to make community college free for any student, or
the first two years free for a low-income student at a Historically Black College or
University (HBCU) or another Minority-Serving Institution (MSI).
• Invest $40 million in an HBCU and MSI Innovation for Completion Fund, which would
provide funds to increase the number of low-income students and students of color
completing degrees at HBCUs and MSIs.
• Invest $6 billion dollars over a decade to reward colleges of any type that successfully
enroll and graduate a significant number of low-income students on time.
• Reform the Pell Grant Program, including doubling the national investment and
adjusting grants to the Consumer Price Index plus 1%. Trigger the maximum award for
students who receive means-tested benefits and eliminate the need to reapply every
year.
STATE / COUNTY/ LOCAL
• Develop innovative and rigorous career and technical education coursework,
teacher training, content, apprenticeships, pathways, professional development and
credentialing linked to workforce/industry needs and trends.
• Double expenditures in college and career readiness for middle and high school
students.
• Create multi-sector and multi-stakeholder commissions to develop plans for
improving career and college readiness.
D. BECOME BETTER INFORMED FOR BETTER STUDENT OUTCOMES
FEDERAL
• Increase funding for the Statewide Longitudinal Data Systems Grant, with priorities for
states that incentivize systems that protect student data, makes data easier to access
for states that align their K-12 education data systems with early childhood, higher
education, public health, workforce development and other data systems.
• Increase funding for the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System to improve
postsecondary data collection and accuracy.
• Publish the Civil Rights Data Collection annually, make the website easier to navigate
and simplify the ability to create charts and analyze data.
MAIN STREET MARSHALL PLAN
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STATE / COUNTY/ LOCAL
• Develop “Ready to Succeed” indicators to measure the impact of strategies,
investments, supports and opportunities on college and career readiness, student
learning and student achievement.
• State departments of education and school districts should require better data
collection and public reporting about resource equity, including human, financial,
curricular, technological, out of school time and instructional resources:
• Create pilot programs to improve the graduation rates of non-traditional students.
These programs would select higher education institutions that serve a large number
of such students and identify innovative approaches—including those that improve
the enrollment intensity of non-traditional students to promote on-time degree
completion.
• Initiate statewide and regional innovation taskforces to consider the needs of future
students, business, and industry and determine the investments that must be made to
provide students with 21st century skills, attitudes and aptitudes.
E. GREAT TEACHERS, LEADERS AND CONTENT IN ALL SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION SETTINGS
FEDERAL
• Continue investments in the ConnectED program so that all students have access to
high-speed internet via schools and libraries by 2018.
• Invest $4 billion dollars over three years for a new Computer Science for All program
to support states and districts in expanding access to computer science instruction
and provide other learning opportunities in computer science.
• Provide $500 million dollars for the Invest in Innovation program to drive innovation in
education across the full set of P-16 settings and content areas. Funds should also be
dedicated to research the efficacy, utility and equity of school and educational models
before they are brought to scale.
STATE/ COUNTY / LOCAL
• Qualified, effective, and credentialed teachers must be equitably distributed and
dedicated professional development provided that supports innovation, leadership,
and teacher collaboration and student success.
• Develop definitions, guidance and support for culturally responsive P-16 teaching
and leadership, and provide additional funding for effective and widespread
implementation.
NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE
10
F. MORE TIME AND OPPORTUNITIES TO LEARN
FEDERAL
• Invest $1 billion dollars annually towards TRIO programs and evidence-based college
and career readiness programs.
• Double the 21st Century Community Learning Center grant allocation to $2.3 billion,
so that additional students benefit from out-of-school time investments.
• Double Community Service Block Grant (CSBG) funds to $1.4 billion to improve state
and community youth outcomes.
STATE / COUNTY/ LOCAL
• Invest in learning opportunities that expand the school day and year via targeted
partnering, integrating new curricula and educational approaches, technology and
professional development.
• Provide adequate resources for evidence-based expanded day/year, positive youth
development and out-of-school time programming and enrichment for students to
exist in each district and school.
G. SAFE AND HEALTHY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
FEDERAL/ STATE / COUNTY / LOCAL
• Invest $500 million to eliminate the school-to-prison pipeline and all attendant
policies and procedures that undergird it.
• Prioritize social and emotional learning supports, practices and professional
development, including for students with special needs and newcomer students, in
pursuit of better student outcomes.
• Eliminate zero-tolerance discipline policies and the use of suspensions, expulsions,
restraints, exclusion and corporal punishment in school settings.
• Invest in positive behavioral interventions and response to intervention to replace
current school discipline policies.
• Replace school resource officers with school counselors, social workers and other
health, wellness and social service professionals.
• Increase funding for the Youth Mentoring program in the Department of Justice to
$120 million.
• Enforce civil rights laws to protect sexual assault victims throughout the P-16 system.
MAIN STREET MARSHALL PLAN
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AFFORDABLE HOUSING,
HOMEOWNERSHIP & ASSET BUILDING
Homeownership is the American Dream. Our nation has embraced this dream since the
National Housing Act of 1949 made “a decent home and a suitable living environment
for every American family” a goal of national policy. However, since the Great Recession,
the national homeownership rate has been declining – and for African Americans and
other people of color – the loss of home equity and intergenerational wealth through
foreclosures represents an historic event. Reversing this trend is vital to American families,
to communities, and to our national economy.
RECOMMENDATIONS
A. EXPAND ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE & SUSTAINABLE HOMEOWNERSHIP
FEDERAL
• Maintain the explicit government-backed guarantee that preserves the 30-year
mortgage and provides broad access to the conventional housing market to
creditworthy borrowers of all races and socioeconomic backgrounds.
• Retain and strengthen the affordable housing goals. The goals must “lead the market”
to ensure underserved communities have representative access to affordable housing.
• We must formally integrate housing counseling into the mortgage application process
to ensure borrowers are educated and informed about the home buying process.
This will help homeowners save money, discourage steering practices and limit loan
defaults. Further, housing counseling should be viewed as a compensating factor in
underwriting decision-making.
• Expand and strengthen the Section 8 Housing Voucher Program.
STATE/COUNTY/LOCAL
• Preserve the Low Income Housing Tax Credit Program.
• Promote inclusionary zoning policies and limit exclusionary zoning policies.
• Create incentive programs for developers to deliver affordable housing for middle-
income families including police officers, firefighters, teachers and other civil servants.
STATE/COUNTY/LOCAL
• Conventional loans should be priced according to the risks in the market. Accordingly,
with the advent of qualified mortgages, credit risk transfers, and housing counseling,
among other safeguards in the system, guarantee fees should be lowered.
B. SUPPORT A ROBUST “HOMEBUYERS’ BILL OF RIGHTS”
FEDERAL
• Preserve, protect and champion the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau.
• Reform credit scoring models and down payment requirements so that all qualified
borrowers have access to affordable mortgages.
NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE
12
• Aggressively leverage the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau’s mortgage servicing and “Know
Before You Owe” rules, its updated Home Mortgage Disclosure Act disclosures, and the Supreme
Court’s affirmation of the use of the disparate impact theory in Fair Housing Act cases in order to
limit the predatory and abusive practices that permeated the industry during the subprime boom.
• Support expansion of efforts similar to HUD’s Homeowners Armed with Knowledge (“HAWK”)
program, which gives borrowers incentive to participate in HUD-approved housing counseling
services.
• Develop a better understanding of non-traditional credit indicators. Rent and utility payments,
among other recurring remittances that reflect creditworthiness that are not included in FICO
scores, should be factored into a new credit scoring model and risk-based pricing rubric.
INDUSTRY
• Housing counseling should be used as a compensating or risk-mitigating factor, allowing borrowers
who do not have the requisite credit score, down payment, or debt-to-income ratio to access the
traditional housing market.
• In light of the specter of significant and draconian cuts to the federal budget, National
Intermediaries should be the focus of private sector investment (training, capacity building, fee-
for-service counseling) supporting the homebuyer and consumer protections.
C. REAFFIRM HUD’S ROLE IN EXPANDING ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR URBAN AMERICA
FEDERAL
• Increase funding for the Choice Neighborhoods Initiative to $1 billion per year
• Review and modernize the formula for Community Development Block Grant funding to states and
localities by including more precise measures of community need, such as the extent of poverty,
population, housing overcrowding, age of housing, and population growth lag in relationship to
other metropolitan areas.
• Restore HOME funding to $2 billion per year
• Enact the Affordable Housing Credit Improvement Act, introduced by Senators Cantwell (D-WA)
and Hatch (R-UT), which would both expand and improve the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit
program.
• Pass Child Savings Accounts into law so that every child has the opportunity to save for his/her
future tax free.
• Extend and expand the Earned Income Tax Credit and Child Tax Credit to ensure low- and
moderate-income Americans have a leg up.
STATE/COUNTY/LOCAL
• Increase the annual Housing Credit allocation authority by 50%.
• Encourage Low Income Housing Tax Credit eligibility for mixed-income housing developments.
INDUSTRY
• Identify and mobilize key institutional influencers and other actors in the housing development
ecosystem to evangelize the historical efficiency and effectiveness of the Low-Income Housing Tax
Credit (LIHTC) program as the prevailing incentive structure for the utilization of private equity in
the development of affordable housing aimed at low-income Americans.
MAIN STREET MARSHALL PLAN
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HEALTH
Access to high-quality healthcare saves and prolongs lives, and helps millions become
more economically stable and productive. Peace of mind spurs American ingenuity and
excellence. African Americans face significant health challenges and disparities relative
to other ethnic groups in the United States. Limited access and utilization of health care
services place an immense burden on the social and economic realities that are central
to their existence and ability to thrive in society. The overwhelming incidence among
African Americans of preventable chronic diseases such as diabetes, stroke, heart disease,
and cancer not only contributes to high morbidity and mortality rates but also threatens
the survival of healthy families. In nearly all measures and indicators of health, African
Americans lag behind their white counterparts. In a study on racial and ethnic disparities,
it was suggested that African Americans overall suffered 40.5% more deaths that year
than would have been expected if they were Caucasian.
RECOMMENDATIONS
A. INVEST IN COMMUNITY HEALTH AND HEALTH EQUITY
FEDERAL
• Protect and strengthen the Affordable Care Act.
• Encourage more states to expand Medicaid by fully funding
• Develop a $1 billion Investing in Health Equity Fund that drives innovation, research
and matches state and local funds designated to address the social determinants of
health.
• Double investments in the Community Health Center Fund and health centers
program.
• Fund community-based efforts to enroll and educate first-time health insurance
recipients.
• Fully fund the Medicaid, Medicare and Children’s Health Insurance Program and reject
all efforts to transform them into block grants.
• Improve maternal health by funding the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for
Women, Infants and Children (WIC) at $8 billion.
• Cover doula and midwife care under Medicaid.
• Enact and fully fund the Health Equity and Accountability Act.
• Invest $1.5 billion in the HIV/AIDS Prevention and Related Programs at the Centers for
Disease Control with at least $822 million allocated to fight against HIV/AIDS.
• Invest at least $120 million in Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health
(REACH).
• Fund the Office of Minority Health for $150 million and ensure that this department
within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) is fully staffed with
culturally competent professionals.
NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE
14
STATE / COUNTY/ LOCAL
• Double funding across all states for programs that prevent sexually transmitted
diseases and increase access to high-quality reproductive health care.
• Create incentives for more doctors to accept Medicaid, particularly in states with a
high percentage of Medicaid recipients and a lower percentage of doctors that accept
Medicaid.
• Build and sustain community health centers and hospitals—particularly in areas
that the federal, state or county government has designated a health professional
shortage area.
• Subsidize health entrepreneurs that seek to bring high-quality medical services,
supports and information to hard-to-reach communities.
• Increase investments in the community health worker model in order to improve
health outcomes and health literacy among communities of color, low-income
communities and other vulnerable communities.
• Create a standardized professional and public funding requirement for continuous
cultural competency training in health care settings, not just for doctors and nurses,
but for all health professionals and staff that provide services.
• Encourage employers to create more family-friendly policies and supports for their
employees, including paid health and family leave.
• Commit $250 million to fund targeted high-quality health care supports and solutions
for vulnerable populations, including, veterans, seniors, youth in foster care, seniors
and the newly insured.
B. ELIMINATE FOOD INSECURITY
FEDERAL
• Fund the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program at $90 billion.
• Eliminate food deserts by increasing access to healthy, affordable, fresh foods via the
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program and other avenues.
• Fully fund the Emergency Food Assistance Program, the Commodity Supplemental
Food Program, the Child and Adult Care Food Program, the National School Lunch
Program, the School Breakfast Program and the Summer Food Service Program.
• Refine the poverty guidelines and eligibility categories that drive access to supports
and services in order to adequately identify the needed resources, available assistance
and the scope of the issue nationally.
STATE/ COUNTY / LOCAL
• Encourage businesses that serve food to reduce waste and provide leftover or
damaged food to those in need.
• Develop measures and indicators that more accurately reflect food insecurity based
upon poverty, unemployment, underemployment, education and language barriers,
not solely upon the federal poverty threshold, which underestimates food insecurity.
• Invest $10 million in each state in order to conduct community mapping projects in
vulnerable communities in order to understand the health and social determinant
issues related to food insecurity in a multi-disciplinary manner.
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C. ADDRESS SUBSTANCE ABUSE
• Dedicate $2 billion for substance abuse, support and prevention programs, which
expand access to treatment for individuals that are affected by substance abuse—
including opioids, illicit substances and prescription drug abuse. These funds could
also be used to decriminalize substance abuse in states and communities.
D. BECOME BETTER INFORMED FOR BETTER HEALTH OUTCOMES, QUALITY AND ACCESS
• Fund the HHS to allow for the inclusion of additional socioeconomic, gender, racial
and ethnic data in all future marketplace and Medicaid reports. Funding should also
be provided so that the HHS can properly encourage reporting of similar data in their
state, county and local reports.
• Across all states, invest $2 billion in technology and in the development of aligned
data systems that better secure individual medical records and advance privacy as
a guiding principle, while facilitating greater public access to aggregate data. This
will allow stakeholders to better determine the right set of investments supports and
strategies, assess progress, measure impact and hold health systems and officials
accountable for improving health outcomes and reducing health disparities.
• Provide incentives to entities that are building tele-health solutions for hard-to-reach
communities in an inclusive and culturally competent manner.
• Ensure that websites created to provide health literacy are compatible on mobile
devices and computers, regardless of operating systems.
NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE
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JUSTICE, VOTING
& CIVIC ENGAGEMENT
POLICE ACCOUNTABILITY
In the wake of highly-publicized police shootings of unarmed young Black men that
sparked widespread protest and eroded public trust in law enforcement, the National
Urban League promoted a 10-Point Plan for Police Reform and Accountability. The plan
was submitted to the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Widespread Use of body cameras and dashboard cameras
2. Broken Windows Reform and Implementation of 21st Century Community Policing
Model
3. Review and Revision of Police Use of Deadly Force Policies
4. Comprehensive Retraining of All Police Officers
5. Comprehensive Review and Strengthening of Police Hiring Standards
6. Appointment of Special Prosecutors to Investigate Police Misconduct
7. Mandatory, Uniform FBI Reporting and Audit of Lethal Force Incidents Involving All
Law Enforcement
8. Creation and Audit of National Database of Citizen Complaints against Police
9. Revision of National Police Accreditation System for Mandatory Use by Law
Enforcement To Be Eligible for Federal Funds
10. National Comprehensive Anti-Racial Profiling Law
VOTING
The right to vote is one of the most fundamental of our democracy. Our goal as a nation
must be first and foremost to ensure that every eligible voter can exercise the right to
vote and have that vote counted. We don’t have a voter fraud problem – we have a voter
suppression problem. Since the Supreme Court’s 2013 decision in Shelby County v. Holder
that gutted the heart of the Voting Rights Act, states have and continue to introduce
and enact laws that are discriminatory and suppress voter turnout, such as requiring an
ID or proof of citizenship to vote, limiting early voting, changing or closing polling places
without adequate notification to voters causing long lines and taking hours to vote, and
gerrymandering congressional districts.
Voter suppression tactics have no place in our country – no matter the state, city, or town
– and must be vigorously opposed. The right to vote is not a tool to be manipulated for
political gain, but one that should expand and enhance our democratic process – as each
constitutional voting amendment has achieved since the 15th amendment.
RECOMMENDATIONS
• Restore the Voting Rights Act.
• Modernize the nation’s voting system.
• Protect voters from deceptive and discriminatory practices, suppression and
intimidation.
MAIN STREET MARSHALL PLAN
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CRIMINAL JUSTICE REFORM
The United States has 5% of the world’s population, and 25% of the world’s prison
population. These high incarceration rates cost U.S. tax payers $80 billion a year. The
American prison industrial complex isn’t just expensive – it is devastating for families and
communities of color who are disproportionately impacted. Sentencing policies, implicit
racial bias, and socioeconomic inequity contribute to racial disparities at every level of
the criminal justice system. Today, people of color make up 37% of the U.S. population
but 67% of the prison population. Overall, African Americans are more likely than white
Americans to be arrested; once arrested, they are more likely to be convicted; and once
convicted, they are more likely to face stiff sentences. Black men are six times as likely
to be incarcerated as white men and Hispanic men are more than twice as likely to be
incarcerated as non-Hispanic white men.
RECOMMENDATIONS
• Identify and enact policies directed toward reducing the federal and state prison
populations.
• Eliminate mandatory minimum sentences and increase judicial discretion through
bipartisan legislation such as the Smarter Sentencing Act and the Justice Safety Valve
Act.
• Pass the End Racial and Religious Profiling Act as introduced in the U.S. Senate or the
End Racial Profiling Act as introduced in the House of Representatives.
• Eliminate the incentive to incarcerate through the use of private prisons
LGBT RIGHTS
As Martin Luther King, Jr., wrote in his Letter from Birmingham Jail, “Injustice anywhere is
a threat to justice everywhere. We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied
in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly.” LGBT
people, particularly people of color, face higher rates of joblessness, lower wages, and
higher rates of poverty than their heterosexual counterparts. Discrimination against LGBT
people leads to vast socioeconomic inequalities.
RECOMMENDATIONS
• Amend the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to include protections that ban discrimination on
the basis of sexual orientation, gender identity, and sex in the areas of employment,
housing, public accommodations, public education, federal funding, credit, and the
jury system.
• Pass the Employment Non-Discrimination Act to prohibit discrimination in hiring and
employment on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.
• Require public schools receiving federal funding to adopt anti-bullying policies that
explicitly include LGBT students.
• Oppose legislation that purports to protect religious liberty at the expense of others’
rights.
NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE
18
JUDICIAL NOMINATIONS
The United States is more diverse than ever, but people of color remain underrepresented
on the judicial bench. White males are overrepresented on state appellate benches by
a margin of nearly two-to-one. Judicial diversity is crucial to establishing a fairer justice
system at the federal, state and local level.
RECOMMENDATIONS
• Increase strategic recruitment. The first step in ensuring a diverse applicant pool is
making sure that an open judicial seat is widely advertised and that all candidates are
welcomed to apply.
• Address diversity in state statutes regarding judicial appointments.
• Train nominating commissions to recruit and nominate effectively, with clear
standards and appropriate training.
• Appoint state and local diversity compliance officers or ombudsmen to monitor
diversity levels and improve outreach efforts.
• Create diverse nominating commissions by statute.
MAIN STREET MARSHALL PLAN
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NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE AFFILIATES
AKRON, OH DETROIT, MI LOS ANGELES, CA ROCHESTER, NY
Akron Urban League Urban League of Detroit & Los Angeles Urban League Urban League of Rochester
Southeastern Michigan
ALEXANDRIA, VA LOUISVILLE, KY SACRAMENTO, CA
Northern Virginia Urban League ELIZABETH, NJ Louisville Urban League Greater Sacramento Urban League
Urban League of Union County
ALTON, IL MADISON, WI SAINT LOUIS, MO
Madison County Urban League ELYRIA, OH Urban League of Greater Madison Urban League of Metropolitan St. Louis
Lorain County Urban League
ATLANTA, GA MASSAPEQUA, KY SAINT PETERSBURG, FL
Urban League of Greater Atlanta ENGLEWOOD, NJ Urban League of Long Island Pinellas County Urban League
Urban League for Bergen County
AURORA, IL MEMPHIS, TN SAN DIEGO, CA
Quad County Urban League FARRELL, PA Memphis Urban League Urban League of San Diego County
Urban League of Shenango Valley
AUSTIN, TX MIAMI, FL SEATTLE, WA
Austin Area Urban League FLINT, MI Urban League of Greater Miami Urban League of Metropolitan Seattle
Urban League of Flint
BALTIMORE, MD MILWAUKEE, WI SPRINGFIELD, IL
Greater Baltimore Urban League FORT LAUDERDALE, FL Milwaukee Urban League Springfield Urban League, Inc.
Urban League of Broward County
BATTLE CREEK, MI MINNEAPOLIS, MN SPRINGFIELD, MA
Southwestern Michigan Urban League FORT WAYNE, IN Minneapolis Urban League Urban League of Springfield
Fort Wayne Urban League
BINGHAMTON, NY MORRISTOWN, NJ STAMFORD, CT
Broome County Urban League GARY, IN Morris County Urban League Urban League of Southern
Urban League of Northwest Indiana, Inc. Connecticut
BIRMINGHAM, AL NASHVILLE, TN
Birmingham Urban League GRAND RAPIDS, MI Urban League of Middle Tennessee TACOMA, WA
Grand Rapids Urban League Tacoma Urban League
BOSTON, MA NEW ORLEANS, LA
Urban League of Eastern Massachusetts GREENVILLE, SC Urban League of Greater New Orleans TALLAHASSEE, FL
Urban League of the Upstate, Inc. Tallahassee Urban League
BUFFALO, NY NEW YORK, NY
Buffalo Urban League HARTFORD, CT New York Urban League TUCSON, AZ
Urban League of Greater Hartford Tucson Urban League
CANTON, OH NEWARK, NJ
Greater Stark County Urban League, Inc. HEMPSTEAD, NY (LONG ISLAND) Urban League of Essex County TULSA, OK
Urban League of Long Island Metropolitan Tulsa Urban League
CHARLESTON, SC OKLAHOMA CITY, OK
Charleston Trident Urban League HOUSTON, TX Urban League of Greater Oklahoma City VIRGINIA BEACH, VA
Houston Area Urban League Urban League of Hampton Roads
CHARLOTTE, NC OMAHA, NE
Urban League of Central Carolinas, Inc. INDIANAPOLIS, IN Urban League of Nebraska, Inc. WARREN, OH
Indianapolis Urban League Greater Warren-Youngstown
CHATTANOOGA, TN ORLANDO, FL
Urban League
Urban League Greater Chattanooga, Inc. JACKSONVILLE, FL Central Florida Urban League
Jacksonville Urban League WASHINGTON, DC
CHICAGO, IL PEORIA, IL
Greater Washington Urban League
Chicago Urban League JERSEY CITY, NJ Tri-County Urban League
Urban League of Hudson County WEST PALM BEACH, FL
CINCINNATI, OH PHILADELPHIA, PA
Urban League of Palm Beach County, Inc.
Urban League of Greater KANSAS CITY, MO Urban League of Philadelphia
Southwestern Ohio Urban League of Greater Kansas City WHITE PLAINS, NY
PHOENIX, AZ
Urban League of Westchester County
CLEVELAND, OH KNOXVILLE, TN Greater Phoenix Urban League
Urban League of Greater Cleveland Knoxville Area Urban League WICHITA, KS
PITTSBURGH, PA
Urban League of Kansas, Inc.
COLUMBIA, SC LAS VEGAS, NV Urban League of Greater Pittsburgh
Columbia Urban League Las Vegas–Clark County Urban League WILMINGTON, DE
PORTLAND, OR
Metropolitan Wilmington Urban League
COLUMBUS, GA LEXINGTON, KY Urban League of Portland
Urban League of Greater Columbus, Inc. Urban League of Lexington–Fayette WINSTON-SALEM, NC
PROVIDENCE, RI
County Winston-Salem Urban League
COLUMBUS, OH Urban League of Rhode Island
Columbus Urban League LITTLE ROCK, AR
RACINE, WI
Urban League of the
DENVER, CO Urban League of Racine & Kenosha, Inc.
State of Arkansas, Inc.
Urban League of Metropolitan Denver
NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Marc H. Morial Wanda Jackson Teresa Candori
President & CEO Senior Vice President Senior Director
Talent Management Media Relations
Michael F. Neidorff
Chairman, Board of Trustees Dennis G. Serette Hazeen Ashby
Senior Vice President Director
Donald E. Bowen Partnerships and Advancement Telecom Research & Policy
President & CEO
Urban Empowerment Fund Rhonda Spears Bell Kyle Williams
Senior Vice President Director
Paul Wycisk Marketing & Communications Financial and Housing Policy
Senior Vice President and
Chief Financial Officer Ron Marlow Shree Chauhan
Vice President Senior Legislative Manager
Nicolaine M. Lazarre Workforce Development Education and Health
Senior Vice President and
General Counsel Stephanie Devane Jordun Lawrence
Vice President Senior Manager
Cy Richardson Entrepreneurship and Business Communications
Senior Vice President for Services
Economics and Housing Programs Dionte Noble
Susie Saavedra Manager
Donald R. Cravins, Jr. Senior Director Digital Design & Creative Assets
Senior Vice President for Policy Policy and Legislative Affairs
Executive Director of the Evan Ashy
Washington Bureau Suzanne Bergeron Financial and Housing Policy
Senior Director Fellow
Michael Miller Workforce, Civil Rights and Social
Senior Vice President Services Dr. Bernard Anderson
Strategy, Innovation and National Urban League
Technology K. Kim Atterbury Chief Economist
Senior Director
Herman Lessard Communications and External National Urban League
Senior Vice President Affairs Board of Trustees
Affiliate Services
120 WALL STREET | NEW YORK, NY 10005 | WWW.NUL.ORG
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN
FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND
INCLUSION
A COLLABORATION COMMISSIONED BY THE NATIONAL URBAN LEAGUE
This Plan was inspired by, and is offered in memory of, the life of Lewis Howard Latimer (1848-1928), a
Black American draftsman, soldier, scientist, and researcher whose parents were born into slavery.
Despite the severe limitations of his time, Latimer made groundbreaking contributions to science that
changed the course of human history. Working with Alexander Graham Bell, Latimer helped draft the
patent for Bell's design of the telephone. Latimer also was involved in the field of incandescent lighting,
a particularly competitive field in the late 19th century, working for Hiram Maxim and Thomas Edison.
Latimer wrote the first book on electric lighting, entitled Incandescent Electric Lighting (1890), and
supervised the installation of public electric lights throughout New York, Philadelphia, Montreal, and
London.
Table of
Contents
FOREWORD 3
A CALL TO ACTION: STATEMENT OF THE
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 10
CHAPTER 1 Where Do We Go from Here with Broadband:
Chaos or Community? 19
CHAPTER 2 The Economic Case for Digital Equity and Inclusion 26
CHAPTER 3 Closing the Broadband Availability Gap 32
CHAPTER 4 Closing the Broadband Adoption Gap 53
CHAPTER 5 Closing the Affordability Gap 69
CHAPTER 6 Closing the Access to Economic Opportunity
and Participation Gap 88
CHAPTER 7 Closing the Utilization Gap 94
CHAPTER 8 Workforce Development 97
CHAPTER 9 Health Care 114
CHAPTER 10 Reimagining Connected Education 126
CHAPTER 11 Higher Education and a Research and
Development Agenda 144
CHAPTER 12 General Government Services 152
CHAPTER 13 Civic Engagement 166
CHAPTER 14 Institutionalizing Digital Equity and Inclusion
in the Policy Process 173
CONCLUSION The Fierce Urgency of Connecting Now 183
ENDNOTES 185
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 2
FOREWORD
MARC H. MORIAL For decades, the National Urban League has warned of
dangers of a persistent digital divide, some obvious and
others more subtle but equally troubling. We’ve reinforced
PRESIDENT AND CEO those warnings with our Digital Inclusion Index, providing
OF THE NATIONAL statistical evidence related to one foundational question: “Are
URBAN LEAGUE the new job, business and educational opportunities created
by increased digitization of our world being equally shared?”
The answer, sadly, remains no. But despite that evidence and
those warnings, government actions to address the divide
have been at best modest and intermittent.
Then COVID-19 hit. The pandemic has accelerated an
already-speedy migration to “remote everything,” particularly
for such essential activities as employment, health care, and
education. The benefits of being connected grew even faster,
as did the costs to communities who were not connected.
COVID-19 proved that broadband was no longer a nicety. It
had become a necessity.
2020 also witnessed the brutal murder of George Floyd. Tens
of millions of Americans saw with clearer eyes what the
National Urban League and the people it serves have long
known: that the legacy of slavery and systemic racism still
plagues America.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 3
These two crises flowed together in demonstrating how acutely the costs of
disconnection disparately impacted communities of color. To its credit, many
Americans raised their voices in calling on not just their neighbors, but also
political actors, policymakers, and corporate leaders, to all address the need
for digital equity and inclusion.
Recognizing that America needed a comprehensive plan to address the
problem, the National Urban League called upon dozens of experts in a wide
range of fields and collected their recommendations for how America could use
the tools of the information economy to create a more equitable and inclusive
economy and society, solving the problem those same tools had, in part,
created.
The result is the Lewis Latimer Plan for Digital Equity and Inclusion. It is named
for, and inspired by, the life of Lewis Howard Latimer (1848-1928), a Black
American draftsman, who made groundbreaking contributions in his work with,
among others, Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison. Just as telephony
and electricity changed the world in Latimer’s time, digitization is changing ours,
and we should act to assure that everyone has the opportunity to contribute to
and benefit from that change.
This plan addresses “the three A’s”—availability, adoption, and access to
economic opportunity. Availability means that a home broadband service is
available to all communities, including communities of color. Adoption means
that households in these communities have subscribed to a broadband service.
Access to economic opportunity means the industry must employ a diverse
workforce and provide business opportunities to communities of color. Millions
of American homes, businesses and other enterprises cannot fully participate
in 21st-century society because we as a country have not adequately
addressed those three A’s.
Our goal in producing the Latimer Plan is to offer not only a comprehensive and
detailed analysis of the problems of digital inequity and exclusion but, more
important, to provide specific, detailed, and pragmatic solutions to these harms,
organized as an integrated set of both strategic and tactical plans. Our
proposals require action and collaboration across multiple institutions, public
and private, and across all levels of jurisdiction. But there is no silver bullet.
The Latimer Plan, though comprehensive, will not be the last word or the only
approach worthy of consideration. But whatever elements make up the ultimate
solution, government must act quickly to assure that the essential goals of digital
equity and inclusion are met: that there are broadband networks everywhere,
that everyone can use and afford them, that we utilize those networks to improve
the delivery of essential services, and that everyone has access to new
economic opportunities and the ability to participate in the continuing growth of
the digital economy. We offer the Latimer Plan to serve as the foundation for
accomplishing those critical and urgent goals and accelerating their
achievement in the next few years.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 4
A CALL TO ACTION:
STATEMENT OF THE
EXECUTIVE
DIRECTOR
EDWARD Our nation’s vast resources and technological capabilities
have never been greater, nor has the need for all Americans
“SMITTY” SMITH to be connected. It is time for us to acknowledge and
embrace the reality that achieving digital equity and inclusion
in the United States is not optional, nor is it charity. It is an
SENIOR DIRECTOR OF existential imperative for a healthier, better educated,
THE LEWIS LATIMER economically stronger country. The plan we outline herein is
PLAN FOR DIGITAL one step in the policy process toward achieving this goal, but
EQUITY AND INCLUSION it is only part of a much greater effort that will require us to
marshal forces across government, non-profits, academia,
and private enterprises to use technology to finally deliver on
some of the old promises that our nation has failed to keep.
My father was a District of Columbia public school teacher
who, in the early 1980s, taught himself COBOL, an old
computer programming language, launching him into a
career in government as an IT specialist and network
engineer. At a time when computers were a rarity in the D.C.
public schools, he realized early that computer literacy would
soon become an indispensable skillset in our classrooms and
beyond. At home, he taught himself how to program and then
how to build entire computer systems and networks – our
home was always filled with modems, motherboards, and
monitors. At school, he started offering computer literacy
classes to other teachers, most of whom had never used a
computer before, and developed materials and curricula for
those teachers to teach computer literacy themselves.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 5
From as early as I can remember, I was taught that computers and
connectivity were essential technologies that could help create opportunity for
anyone who could access them, afford them, and knew how to use them. This
lesson has resonated with me throughout my life and, nearly three decades
later, when I joined the Obama Administration, I had the opportunity to put
these teachings to work designing and implementing programs that would
help provide broadband to millions.
However, years later, one of the broadband grants we funded during my time
in the Administration generated a report on the state of the digital divide in my
hometown of Washington, D.C. What that 2015 report found was that, even in
the heart of the nation’s capital, over 160,000 residents remained without
broadband at home. Furthermore, adoption rates in the poorer, largely Black
American parts of the city where I grew up and where my father taught, trailed
rates in more affluent parts of the city by over twenty percent. D.C. had grown
larger and more prosperous but, as always, the poor were left behind.
Today, the rates of adoption have improved in my old neighborhood, but not
nearly enough. Failings of digital equity and inclusion persist, and, in our
country’s lower-income communities, both rural and urban, those without
broadband continue to languish in a state of digital poverty that compounds
preexisting inequities and prevents them for fully participating in our
increasingly connected society. My father saw both the opportunity of
connectivity and the danger of being unconnected before the Internet
revolutionized how we work, learn, play, and communicate. Larry Irving saw
the danger in the 1990s when he coined the term the “digital divide.” The team
that drafted the National Broadband Plan in 2010 presented a prescription for
how to close the divide. And Tom Wheeler leveraged the Federal
Communications Commission’s resources and expertise to help make parts
of that plan a reality.
But, for all of our efforts, of millions still remain unconnected, even as the
consequences of digital poverty are greater than ever. Today’s crisis is the
COVID-19 pandemic and economic and social turmoil. Tomorrow’s crisis will
test us further. But what is certain is that, from now on, the cost of being
unconnected will be your livelihood and may be your very life. That is a price
that no American should have to pay when we have the means and the
knowhow to connect everyone.
What we present in this plan is a not simply a blueprint, or a prescription. It is
a call to action. The time to act is now and the costs of inaction are grave.
However, the real answers will not come from the pages of any report but,
rather, from our ability to work together across sectors to direct our collective
expertise and resources towards solving a broader societal problem that
harms all of us, both the connected and unconnected. This plan intends to set
in motion a greater effort, realized through legislation, regulation, executive
action, corporate investment, and public-private partnerships.
Some of the plan’s proposals will become new programs, others will be
transformed into something better, and some will end up on the cutting room
floor. But what is clear is that we can no longer afford halfway solutions that
exclude tens of millions of our fellow citizens. All our communities and
neighbors need to be connected and they need to be connected as soon as
possible. Thank you for having this conversation with us. We look forward to
working together.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was, in every way, a collaborative effort, drawing on a diverse and deep wealth of
experience and expertise in the many different fields discussed in the Latimer Plan. In light of
that collaboration--designed to enhance the discussion of how to best advance the goals of
digital equity and inclusion--it is important to note that the views expressed in this paper are
solely those of the National Urban League and the authors of the specific chapters, and not any
sponsors of this plan or any others who assisted in this effort. Further, the views expressed in
the chapters are the views of the authors in their individual capacity, and should not be attributed
to any institution with which they are affiliated.
The first acknowledgements must go to the team at the National Urban League itself. Marc H.
Morial, the CEO and President of the National Urban League, provided critical leadership in
framing and pressing the project forward. Nicole Lazare, the former General Counsel of the
League, initiated the discussions and structured the Plan, while Clint Odom, the former Senior
Vice-President for Policy and Advocacy, shepherded the project through its initial drafting. Joi
Chaney, the League’s Executive Director for its Washington Bureau and Senior Vice President
for Policy and Advocacy, assisted by Danielle Davis, the League’s Tech and Telecom Fellow,
took the project over the finish line. The League’s Cara Morris and Robert Pierre provided
additional support.
The project also benefitted enormously from the support provided to the League by Edward
“Smitty” Smith, a partner at the firm DLA Piper, who served as the Senior Director of the Plan.
Of course any discussion of digital equity and inclusion builds on the foundations laid by many
others, including, but not limited to, Larry Irving, the former head of NTIA who warned of, and
coined the phrase, the “digital divide” more than two decades ago, Brookings Scholar Nicol
Turner-Lee, the work of certain Think Tanks, particularly The Multicultural Media, Telecom and
Internet Council (MMTC), founded by David Honig and now under the leadership of Maurita
Coley, and the Joint Center for Economic and Political Studies and its President Spencer
Overton. In addition, this document was constructed on various analyses of these issues by
many at the FCC but most particularly former Commissioner Mignon Clyburn and current
Commissioner Geoffrey Starks.
Larry Downes, the author of several best-selling books on business and technology, served as
the Editor-in-Chief, and performed an extraordinary service in pulling together a diverse set of
contributions and making them all better. Melissa Turcois, an associate at DLA Piper, also
assisted with the drafting and editorial functions, particularly in weaving together feedback and
suggestions from a number of outside readers.
While all the chapters reflect the input of a number of sources, there were principal authors for
each of the chapters. These were as follows:
• Chapter 1: Blair Levin, Senior Non-Resident Fellow, Brookings Institution, Metropolitan
Policy Project
• Chapter 2: Larry Downes
• Chapter 3: Paul de Sa of Quadra Partners and Carol Mattey of Mattey Consulting
• Chapter 4: John B. Horrigan, PhD, and Angela Siefer, Executive Director of the National
Digital Inclusion Alliance
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 7
• Chapter 5: Blair Levin
• Chapter 6: Melissa Turcois
• Chapter 7: Blair Levin and Larry Downes
• Chapter 8: Marcella Gadson, formerly with MMTC (now with CTIA)
• Chapter 9: Kerry McDermott, MPH
• Chapter 10: Steve Midgley, Elise Kohn, and Whitney Whealdon of Learning Tapestry and
Derek Mitchell of Partners in School Innovation.
• Chapter 11: Lev Gonick, Chief Information Officer, Arizona State University
• Chapter 12: Rob Atkinson and Daniel Castro of the Information Technology and
Innovation Foundation
• Chapter 13: Blair Levin
• Chapter 14: Professor Matt Perault and his Duke University class on technology policy,
including Mihir Bellamkonda, James Eide, Lee Foster, Charlie Graham, Zachary
Silverman Guffey, Abdur Rehman, and Niharika Vattikonda
• Conclusion: Blair Levin and Larry Downes
We received helpful comments, criticisms, and ideas from a number of different sources. These
include, but were not limited to, New Street Research, particularly Jonathan Chaplin and Philip
Burnett, who helped us understand market trends related to both the availability and the adoption
gap; CTC Technology and Energy, particularly Joanne Hovis and Jacob Levin, who provided
insight into state and local efforts to close the availability and adoption gaps, as well as the
importance of credit issues; MMTC, particularly David Honig and Maurita Coley, who provided
insight on the overall plan and particularly helped review the sections on adoption and workforce
development; Peter Bowen and his colleagues at Bain & Company, Patrick Dupree, Mark Bower,
and Austin Beck, who shared important insights into the broadband speeds and quality of
service metrics that consumers were relying on in the COVID era; the Heartland Forward
Foundation, particularly Angie Cooper, John Bailey and Matt Yale, who shared their insights from
their own work on similar issues; Common Sense Media, particularly Daniel Weiss and Amina
Fazllulah, and EducationSuperhighway, particularly Evan Marwell, provided significant data and
insights about digital education generally and addressing the “homework gap” specifically; Shira
Hollander, Samantha Burch, and Ariel Levin of the American Hospital Association assisted with
understanding the state of healthcare in light of COVID-19; and the Back to Work Project, and
particularly John Schnur, who assisted with the workforce development analysis. Professor Stuart
Brotman, of the University of Tennessee and the Wilson Center, provided his expertise on privacy
issues. We also benefitted from the insights of a number of former FCC officials who had worked
on these issues, including Tom Wheeler, Gigi Sohn, Ruth Milkman and Roger Sherman, and Jim
Kohlenberger, who had worked on these issues in two previous administrations.
In addition, Robert F. Smith, of Vista Equity Partners, and his Chief of Staff Ami Desi helped
shape our approach and assisted in a number of outreach efforts, Jonathan Chambers of
Connexon shared his considerable knowledge of the state of play of broadband in rural America,
Tom Kalil of Schmidt Futures assisted in thinking through improving research and job training
through AI, Dori Glanz of Manatt Consulting assisted in developing ideas about Medicaid, Karen
Kornbluh of the German Marshal Fund and Professor Ellen Goodman of Rutgers Law School
provided their expertise on civic engagement, and Hannah Levin provided the research for the
recommendation on online tutoring. Peter Christy provided expertise in Internet engineering and
network architecture. The economists Professor Greg Rosston of the Stanford Institute for
Economic Policy Research and Scott Wallsten of the Technology Policy Institute were generous
in sharing ideas based on their recent research on adoption. Bruce Mehlman, one of DC’s
premier experts on the intersection of technology and policy and the Co-Chairman of the Internet
Innovation Alliance, graciously used that expertise in helping us road test some of the ideas in
the Plan. We also are grateful to the Aspen Digital team, particularly its Executive Director Vivian
Schiller, for their advice and for hosting a session with a wide variety of stakeholders to discuss
the issues raised in the Plan.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 8
The development of the Plan would not have been possible without the generous funding of the
following organizations: Alphabet, Amazon, AT&T, Charter Communications, Comcast,
Crown Castle, DISH, Facebook, Google, Microsoft, Nokia, Qualcomm, Schmidt Futures,
Starry, T-Mobile, and Verizon. In addition, we benefited from the contribution of substantial
pro bono support from the law firm of DLA Piper. The Glen Echo Group, particularly Ellen
Satterwhite, also provided pro bono support in a variety of ways. Again, the views expressed
in this paper are those of the National Urban League and the authors of the specific
chapters, and not
outside advisors to any funders of or
this plan.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 9
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
Ten years ago, the National Broadband Plan observed that as “more aspects of daily life
move online and offline alternatives disappear, the range of choices available to people
without broadband narrows. Digital exclusion compounds inequities for historically
marginalized groups.” In light of these trends, that plan warned “the cost of digital
exclusion is large and growing.”
Unfortunately, only modest efforts to address workforce development, health care and
those costs have been expended in the last education.
decade. Now, as the COVID-19 pandemic
accelerates a shift to “remote everything,” the The National Urban League, working with
costs of exclusion have grown even larger. other civil rights organizations and public
The need for policymakers to act has become policy experts, has commissioned the Lewis
even more urgent, compelling us to ask, how Latimer Plan for Digital Equity and Inclusion
can the tools of the information economy be (the “Plan”), a detailed and comprehensive
employed to create a more equitable and agenda to reach these goals and erase
inclusive society? several persistent and dangerous gaps:
The answer lies in accomplishing four big, but The Availability Gap. For millions of American
achievable, goals: homes, businesses and other enterprises,
there is no available broadband network
• Deploying networks everywhere. capable of allowing them to participate fully in
21st century life. This is generally a rural
problem, where higher capital costs are
• Getting everyone connected. required to reach fewer customers. In
sparsely populated areas of the country,
• Creating new economic opportunities to private capital alone is unable to economically
participate in the growth of the digital justify the investment needed to build high-
economy. speed broadband infrastructure.
• Using the networks to improve how we Currently, the federal government has not
deliver essential services, in particular in gathered the necessary data to accurately
define and identify what constitutes an
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 10
unserved area, nor does it have a good map programs that support broadband
of the locations where no networks are deployment efforts, provide a search engine
available. Further, the current system of that enables stakeholders to more effectively
subsidizing high-cost deployments is under find the programs that serve their needs, and,
significant stress, unable to fund the to the extent feasible, create a common
necessary build-out for many years, if not application that enables those applying for
decades. funding from more than one program to save
time and effort on the application process.
To Close the Availability Gap, the Plan
recommends that Congress provide the FCC The Adoption Gap. Even among those
with sufficient appropriations to fund capital Americans for whom a broadband network is
expenses necessary to deploy broadband available, there are still tens of millions who
networks to all Americans. have not adopted broadband in their homes.
Indeed, in terms of number of Americans
The Plan also recommends that the FCC: affected, the Adoption Gap is approximately
three times larger than the Availability Gap.
• Re-examine, based on network usage There are two principal causes of the
during the COVID-19 crisis, the Adoption Gap. One is a lack of digital
performance standards below which an readiness. A second, and more significant
area is deemed unserved by broadband cause, is the unaffordability of entry level
at home, and above which subsidized broadband services for a significant portion of
networks are required to perform in order the American population.
to qualify for capital funding support;
• Produce an accurate map of broadband To Address Digital Readiness. Digital
availability, pinpointing unserved by readiness refers to the skills and equipment
broadband services; needed to effectively use information and
communications technology to find, evaluate,
• Eliminate the Eligible Telecommunications create, and communicate online. The lack of
Company (ETC) requirement, which such skills is a significant barrier for certain
disqualifies existing and future broadband demographic groups, hindering their ability to
providers who could otherwise deliver adopt and fully utilize broadband at home.
service quickly and efficiently;
The Plan’s principal recommendation for
• Produce a set of best practices for addressing digital readiness is to create a
reducing deployment costs and times; national Office of Digital Equity to help
and coordinate training targeted to demographic
groups with the lowest rates of adoption.
• Hold a series of reverse auctions to
allocate subsidies necessary to close the Among specific recommendations for the
Availability Gap. These investments Office, the Plan proposes:
should be based on technology-neutral
criteria, supporting a mix of solutions that • Establishing a Digital Navigators Corps to
can be rapidly deployed. Further, the help unconnected persons solve a wide
FCC should adopt stronger guardrails for range of adoption issues;
the short form process to examine more
closely whether an entity seeking to bid • Creating an Online Digital Readiness
has the actual technical, operational, and Portal to provide every American with
financial resources necessary to meet its access to free, age-appropriate curricula
commitments. Enterprises should not be that teaches digital skills and enhances
allowed to bid on the basis of unproven digital readiness, offered in multiple
technology. languages;
In addition, the Plan recommends that the • Issuing reports on the effectiveness of
National Telecommunications and Information different digital readiness strategies.
Administration (NTIA), which has information
on its website about dozens of federal
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 11
To Address Affordability. The principal 1. LifelineMobile, which would continue the
government program addressing broadband current Lifeline subsidy for basic voice
affordability today is Lifeline, which provides and mobile functions with some limited
a $9.25 monthly subsidy to qualifying low- data, albeit with comprehensive reforms;
income households for communications and
services. There is a broad consensus that
Lifeline is deeply flawed, with too small a 2. LifelineHome, composed of:
subsidy, ineffective distribution, and reliance
for funding on an unsustainable model that is
based on a regressive tax on traditional a. LifelineJobs, which would provide
telephone services. Given these limits, broadband at home to the unemployed,
Lifeline today is used almost exclusively for empowering them to utilize online
mobile, rather than in-home broadband programs to upgrade their skills, as well
services. as search, apply and interview for jobs;
While mobile services have significant value, b. LifelineMed, which would provide
broadband at home creates better broadband at home to low-income
opportunities with enormous public benefits, persons, to utilize the full suite of
benefits that today are not being captured. telehealth services; and
We all gain, for example, when the
unemployed can train online for new careers, c. LifelineEd, which would provide
and use the same tools everyone else does to broadband at home to low-income
search, apply for, and interview for new jobs, families with K-12 schoolchildren and
getting them back in the work force quickly. members of their households, to utilize
Likewise, everyone benefits when at-risk all forms of digital learning.
communities can receive telehealth at home,
improving community health outcomes and All eligible families or individuals would be
lowering costs for government medical eligible for both the mobile and one
programs. Finally, everyone wins when all broadband at home benefit. Use of the
children have the tools to do their homework broadband at home benefit would not be
and engage in online learning in their homes, restricted, so that regardless of the specific
improving educational achievements. service, the person or family could use
broadband for any purpose.
To capture these benefits, the Lifeline
program requires substantial overhaul. The The Plan proposes that LifelineMobile and
simplest solution, and the approach we favor, LifelineEd be funded by direct Congressional
would be for Congress to appropriate funds appropriations. LifelineJobs and LifelineMed
for the FCC to create a permanent version of should be funded through mandates added to
the Emergency Broadband Benefit that existing government unemployment and
Congress passed earlier this year, which the medical insurance programs. Providing
FCC is currently implementing. beneficiaries of these programs with
broadband would, if properly designed,
Alternatively, Congress could create a new largely pay for itself in the form of savings to
program to address both mobile and the delivery of critical services currently
broadband at home needs to assure access provided only through in-person activities.
to essential government services for
workforce development, healthcare, and Broadband provided through one of the
education. While the program we propose LifelineHome programs will likely support
would not have the simplicity—an important several program goals. For example,
virtue in public policy design—of making the approximately 70% of school children without
EBB permanent, it would have advantages in broadband at home and who would be
terms of distribution and cost savings. eligible for a benefit under LifelineEd are also
covered by Medicaid, and would therefore
The new program, which we call Lifeline+, already be eligible for LifelineMed. Providing
would include a mobile benefit and a broadband through Medicaid and other
broadband a home benefit, which consists of government health insurance plans would
three related programs: also improve the distribution of the benefit.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 12
As with infrastructure support, the Plan assuring that all Americans, regardless of
recommends eliminating the ETC requirement race, income, or location, have the tools and
for Lifeline service providers, and skills to fully participate in the economy and
recommends that support be provided society of the 21st Century, we also want to
directly to beneficiaries in the form of any close gaps that limit opportunities to
efficient means, such as a debit card, to participate meaningfully in the business of
enhance consumer control and choice and to value creation as broadband and broadband-
reduce the possibility of waste and fraud. We enabled enterprises continue to innovate,
note that the FCC will gain experience through grow, and prosper. We must also ensure that
the Emergency Broadband Benefit program, job opportunities are available for the
and such experience should inform any country’s growing Black and Latinx
ultimate permanent broadband benefit. communities at every level in the technology
and technology-related business sectors.
The Access to Economic Opportunity and
Participation Gap. Several decades ago, The causes of limited access to economic
famed venture capitalist John Doerr said the opportunity and inclusion are complex, but
personal computer industry’s growth from the gap can be closed with public and private
zero to $100 billion in 10 years was “the intention, leaving our nation stronger, more
greatest legal accumulation of wealth in equitable, and more prosperous. In truth, this
history.” Subsequently he had to amend his gap was created by legal and historic barriers
comment. Noting that the Internet dwarfed to capital access and legal barriers to full
the PC revolution by going from zero to $400 citizenship and opportunity. In the last
billion in five years, Doerr said “There are decades of the 20th century, government and
waves and then there is a tsunami.” That industry began to address some of these
tsunami has continued. Today the top five barriers, but these efforts lack sustainability or
American companies by market capitalization face legal challenges that raise the specter of
(Microsoft, Apple, Amazon, Alphabet, and “reverse racism.” The televised murder or
Facebook) all rode the tsunami Doerr George Perry Floyd, Jr. and the Black Lives
described. Matter movement have prompted a renewed
interest in a holistic government response and
Unfortunately, opportunities for wealth intentionality by many corporations to close
accumulation are not equitably distributed. the economic opportunity and participation
Jobs, especially the higher paying jobs in the gap. Corporate America, in a number of ways,
technology industry, have not been filled by has accepted accountability to ingrain
Blacks and Latinxs in any significant way. The diversity, equity, and inclusion into their
National Urban League’s 2018 State of Black corporate DNA, including creating racially
America Report found that of the 40,000 and gender diverse corporate boards,
employees of four major Silicon Valley staffing, C-suites, procurement, philanthropy,
technology firms, only 1,000 were Black; the and community investment.
number for Latinx is paltry. Moreover,
business inclusion and opportunity in the Civil rights organizations, led by the National
growing tech sector has lagged miserably for Urban League, have pioneered the
Blacks and Latinx. negotiation of written memorandums of
understanding with several communication
This is not a new problem. The person for companies to set forth goals, timetables, and
whom this Plan is named, Lewis Latimer, was initiatives to achieve greater diversity, equity,
a free Black patent-holder and the son of and inclusion. As a nation, we should move
slaves, whose achievements were critical to forward with new vigor and intentionality in
the success of his employers, Thomas Edison utilizing these techniques to drive towards
and Alexander Graham Bell. Unfortunately, greater economic opportunity for those who
but typically, while Latimer was a key have historically been left behind.
contributor to Edison’s and Bell’s seminal
wealth-creating inventions, he had no To close the economic opportunity and
ownership stake in the vast businesses they participation gap, industry, government, and
spawned. community organizations must work together
to improve and increase commitments to
We need to break that historic pattern. While racial equity in corporate board membership,
much of the Latimer Plan is focused on staffing, the C-suite, procurement,
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 13
philanthropy, and community investment. To greater utilization of telehealth, it has also
facilitate this collaboration, the Plan shown that we have a long way to go in other
recommends: areas, such as education. We need to be
more intentional in developing new
• Infrastructure. As part of any future capabilities, to assure that they lift up, rather
infrastructure legislation, Congress must than disadvantage, low-income persons and
include mandates for companies that will communities of color. The Plan details
directly benefit from increased federal recommendations on policies that can, in
investment in infrastructure to improve conjunction with universal availability and
their performance in providing access to adoption, improve the delivery of essential
economic opportunity and participation in services.
the categories noted above.
Workforce Development. Governments
should improve digital tools that enable
• Measure Diversity. The Department of people interested in every job type to upgrade
Commerce and the FCC should collect their skills and to search, apply, and interview
information that allows the government for jobs, and ensure that small businesses
and the public to understand and evaluate can use broadband-based tools to improve
how the private sector, and the technology their prospects.
and related sectors in particular, are
improving economic opportunity and
participation in the categories noted The Plan makes several recommendations,
above. including:
• Incentivize Diversity. The Department of • The White House and Congress should
Commerce, the FCC, the Small Business expand access to digital resources and
Administration, and the Securities and technical assistance for enterprises
Exchange Commission should evaluate located in rural areas and among
annually and report to Congress on communities of color;
measures that could be adopted to
enhance the performance of private • The Department of Labor should develop
enterprise in improving economic more broadband, technology, and
opportunity and participation in the communications sector-related registered
categories noted above. apprenticeship training programs;
• Highlight Sustainable Success. The • The federal government should provide
Department of Commerce, the FCC, the incentives for companies, states,
Small Business Administration, and the municipalities, nonprofit organizations,
Securities and Exchange Commission and the private sector to create and scale
should publish an annual report on best new workforce development and digital
practices for enhancing the performance skills training programs;
of private enterprise in improving
economic opportunity and participation in • Federal agencies should increase and
the categories noted above. improve data collection related to
workforce development; and
The Utilization Gap. Deploying networks
everywhere and assuring that everyone has • States should modernize their
the skills and means to connect are necessary unemployment benefits systems to more
first steps. But they are not sufficient to effectively offer unemployed citizens
achieve digital equity and inclusion. We also access to opportunities for future
need to increase the utilization of digital employment.
platforms, which requires substantial
improvement to essential government
Health Care. With healthcare services are
services offered online. The COVID-19 crisis increasingly provided online, government
has forced our economy and society to run a must assure that everyone has access to
massive—if unplanned—experiment in user-friendly, health-enabling tools that
“remote everything.” While that experiment
has produced some positive trends, including connect them to high-quality, affordable
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 14
health services and medical information they appropriately trained adults, such as
can understand. online tutors;
To do so, the Plan recommends that federal • Invest in a federal research and
and state governments act to reduce development agenda focused on
disparities in access to health care services advancing new models of technology-
by: empowered teaching and learning that
promote equity and improve outcomes for
• Adopting consistent policies across state all students;
Medicaid programs;
• Invest in culturally responsive and
• Removing geographic and originating site relevant online learning tools;
restrictions;
• Reform funding systems to ensure
• Removing limitations on eligible services, adequate and equitable distribution of
providers, and facilities, and removing resources, particularly to advance digital
unnecessary restrictions on practitioners learning;
eligible to provide telehealth services; and
• Improve access for students of color and
• Funding programs supporting digital others to educational experiences that
health care infrastructure and technical improve their ability to utilize technology;
assistance, digital health literacy, and and
workforce diversity.
• Develop a National Strategic Agenda for
In addition, the Plan recommends: Education Technology Research &
Development, focused on improving
• The Department of Health and Human outcomes for students of color.
Services should allocate funding to
develop, recruit, and retain health care Higher Education and R&D. Colleges and
professionals from underrepresented universities, with some of the best broadband
groups; and networks in the world, remain an underutilized
resource for digital equity and inclusion. We
• The FCC should a modify the Connected also underfund research and development in
Care Pilot Program and the Telehealth improving teaching and training.
Program to focus more on improving
health outcomes for low-income To address those shortfalls, the Plan
communities and communities of color. recommends:
K-12 Education. Technology is creating a • Using university resources to help
new educational infrastructure with a vast institutions servicing those who have been
expanse of new, diverse, and relevant disadvantaged by failings of digital equity
opportunities. Unfortunately, uneven and inclusion;
implementation of these technologies is
widening rather than narrowing existing gaps • Focusing future research on
in educational outcomes. We must assure understanding how digital education can
that new educational infrastructure provides improve outcomes and overcome
all students with equal access to the tools and persistent performance gaps;
content of fast-evolving digital learning.
Further, we need to provide teachers the
support they need to enable students to • Understanding and promoting best
maximize the value of digital content. practices for using digital education to
build a more equitable and inclusive
society; and
To do so, the Plan proposes to:
• Increasing efforts to identify, develop,
• Ensure students have support for digital test, and deploy applications of digital
learning from teachers and other
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 15
educational technologies that foster Congress:
economic and social mobility.
• Hold a series of civil rights-focused
Government Services. Low-income and hearings with high-level executives from
minority communities would benefit companies that have been major
significantly from greater online access to repositories of disinformation;
government services. Many government
information systems, however, are outdated.
Further, budget gaps lead to failures in • Increase investment in reliable, relevant,
upgrading and maintaining digital and trusted information for underserved
infrastructure. Overall, governments must communities by grants through the
systematically improve their ability to use Corporation for Public Broadcasting to
technology to deliver services. local noncommercial stations, for
journalism by and for underserved
communities; and
To address these issues, the Plan
recommends that federal, state, and local
governments: • Restore funding to the Office of
Technology Assessment.
• Optimize government websites for mobile
use; The White House:
• Establish a one-stop-shop for citizens to • Empanel a commission to study how
access and control personally-identifiable information on COVID-19 was made
information held by government agencies; publicly available, how this information
Improve automated online government affected societal response, and what
customer support; should be done to limit the impact of false
and dangerously misleading information
moving forward, while preserving First
• Take steps to eliminate data poverty, the Amendment rights and values;
social and economic inequalities that
result from a lack of collection or use of
data about an individual or community: • Promote the establishment of a private
industry-led information accuracy
certification body.
• Require all government forms be provided
digitally for data entry, signing, and The FTC:
submission; and
• Establish social media best practices;
• Modernize and secure existing
government systems, and facilitate low-
contact and remote access to government • Propose recommendations with respect to
websites and services. limiting the potential damage of political
microtargeting; and
Civic Engagement. Failings of digital equity
and inclusion limit many Americans from full • Mandate real-time ad transparency and
engagement in the political and civic lives of access to archives.
their communities. Misinformation is
overwhelming accurate information and Institutionalization. Achieving digital equity
poisoning the digital conversation, particularly and inclusion requires a sustained, systemic,
for communities of color. Online platforms and appropriately resourced effort that is
have created new problems related to micro- highly reliant on intergovernmental
targeting in advertising, algorithmic bias, coordination and collaboration. Currently,
digital redlining, and other uses that make the policymakers do not have the tools or data to
Internet problematic for communities of color. monitor and evaluate efforts to close the gaps
identified in the Plan. To address these
To address these problems, the Plan needs, the Plan recommends that the federal
recommends that: government:
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 16
• Examine biases that could affect its
existing collection, analysis, and
interpretation of data;
• Collect the data necessary to review use
of governmental information and digital
services by each population it serves, and
track how constituents interact with each
agency;
• Partner with state and local governments
to collect relevant data, including as part
of efforts to expand broadband
availability, adoption, and utilization
carried out at the local level; and
• Convene an annual National Digital
Inclusion Summit to review progress,
determine key barriers to progress, and
adjust policies, as necessary.
Conclusion. While the COVID crisis appears
to be ending, the need for digital equity and
inclusion is not. Indeed, the economic and
societal trends the health crisis accelerated
make the task more urgent. We need a surge
of government action that produces
sustainable results.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 17
Chapter 1.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
WHERE DO WE GO
FROM HERE WITH
BROADBAND:
CHAOS OR
COMMUNITY?
In 1967, the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King isolated himself in a house in Jamaica to
write about the crossroads he believed the Civil Rights movement faced. The resulting
book, tragically his last, is titled: Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?
While King thought the movement could look back with pride on its many
accomplishments, he candidly acknowledged the mountains yet to climb, and the
fissures in the movement that might prevent future progress, or even lead the movement
backwards.
Written in the wake of substantial legislative and as he might say today, “The fight is far
victories, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 from over, because it is neither won, as some
and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, King assert, nor lost, as the calamity-ridden
soberly acknowledged that “Laws only declare.”
declare rights; they do not deliver them.” The
book attempts to chart a path for America, The battlefield, however, has changed. One
and the world, to move from a society that of the most significant shifts from King’s time
continued to degrade and exclude millions to is how broadband has emerged as the
a society comprising a “beloved community” commons of collaboration in our modern
that valued and offered opportunity to all. economy, in our society, and in obtaining
access to critical services such as health
Much has changed in the United States since care, education, and job training.
then, but the battles that King fought so
valiantly continue to rage. As he said then,
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 19
Those skilled in using that commons have becoming a catastrophic COVID slide, with
enjoyed extraordinary gains in the past unconnected students falling even farther
several decades. But those who have been behind.
kept off the digital platform have experienced
exactly the opposite. Ten years ago, the A similar story can be told about healthcare.
National Broadband Plan observed that as We see the problem in the specific problem of
“more aspects of daily life move online and Inequality in broadband access leading to
offline alternatives disappear, the range of inequality in obtaining the vaccine for COVID-
choices available to people without 19. But the relationship between access to
broadband narrows. Digital exclusion broadband and access to healthcare is not a
compounds inequities for historically short-term story but rather, part of what will be
marginalized groups.” In light of these trends, a critical long-term trend.
that plan warned the cost of
Telehealth, which has become a critical
necessity since the start of the COVID-19
pandemic, putting health care out of reach for
“[D]igital exclusion is large and growing. those without home broadband. A recent
study found that only 38.6% of the people who
For individuals, the cost manifests itself in live more than a 70-minute drive from a
the form of lost opportunities. As more primary care physician subscribe to an
Internet connection capable of handling
aspects of daily life relocate online and telehealth services.
offline alternatives disappear, the range of Another illustration of how our country is
choices available to people without paying a cost for our failure to close
broadband gaps was the scene in Florida at
broadband narrows. Digital exclusion the outset of the health crisis, with hundreds
compounds inequities for historically of people risking their safety to line up to
obtain an unemployment form, because the
marginalized groups. People with low state’s website crashed. In employment, as
well as other critical government services, we
incomes, people with disabilities, racial and could point to other, similar examples, all of
ethnic minorities, people living on Tribal which make painfully clear that the public
sector is still far behind where it should be in
lands and people living in rural areas are less terms of providing services over the Internet.
likely to have broadband at home.” As these examples suggest, ten years since
the publication of the National Broadband
Plan, it is undisputable that Internet services
and applications have evolved to provide
The Plan further projected that “our significant benefits, general and specific, to
accelerating reliance on digital technology millions of users. In key areas of daily life,
appears to be driving greater disparities; left broadband service is quickly becoming a
unaddressed, those gaps will likely grow.” necessity, a reality made more urgent amid
the COVID-19 pandemic. Those who, for
Sadly, despite inspiring public and private whatever reasons, are not active Internet
efforts to close the gaps, disparities in digital users are not just missing out on the latest
life have grown. Worse, the costs to the digital innovations in entertainment, home
have-nots have become even more evident automation, and electronic commerce.
with COVID-19. A growing “homework gap,” Increasingly, they are shut out of basic
which kept millions of school children from access to essential applications in education,
being able to use the Internet to complete health care, and employment services,
schoolwork at home, has become a total among others.
“education gap,” where they are unable even
to attend classes. The traditional summer While access to broadband is the latest
slide in educational achievement—which challenge in the struggle for equal
could be mitigated through a thoughtful opportunity, the technology itself offers new
summer online tutoring program—-is and innovative avenues to achieving it.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 20
Broadband can be a platform for significant
economic, cultural, and social transformation,
overcoming distance and transcending the
limitations of one’s physical surroundings.
Because of how it scales, the best From time immemorial men have lived by
applications for one can become available to
everyone. Ironically, however, Internet the principle that ‘self-preservation is the
technologies, which have always
demonstrated tremendous potential to level first law of life.’ But this is a false
playing fields and lower costs, are assumption. I would say that other
disproportionately benefiting the most affluent
Americans, widening rather than closing preservation is the first law of life. It is the
social, economic, and political divides. first law of life precisely because we cannot
Digital equity and inclusion offers a means to preserve self without being concerned about
achieve the more perfect union our founders
envisioned, and for which we must constantly preserving other selves…. We are in the
strive. By “digital equity and inclusion,” we fortunate position of having our deepest
mean the full participation in digital life by
virtually all Americans, using a home sense of morality coalesce with our self-
broadband Internet service that is available,
adopted, and affordable. interest…In a real sense, all life is
interrelated. The agony of the poor
This document lays out an agenda for
achieving that vision. It recommends policies, impoverishes the rich; the betterment of the
programs, and strategic plans directed to a poor enriches the rich. We are inevitably our
wide range of public and private
stakeholders, aimed at closing the gaps. Our brother’s keeper because we are our
goal, quite simply, is to achieve digital equity
and inclusion. This Plan starts by asking how brother’s brother. Whatever affects one
can we use the tools of the information society affects all directly.
to create a more equitable and inclusive
economy and society? It then answers with a
comprehensive set of recommendations. It
also makes abundantly clear that if we do not While King uses the language of morality and
act on this Plan our failure will not simply leave biblical texts, there is evidence to support his
us where we are today. It will result in the view embedded in the economics of
situation getting much worse, not just for the networks. The value of any network grows,
digitally disconnected, but for everyone. according to Robert Metcalfe, “proportional to
the square of the number of nodes in the
The case for digital equity and inclusion is network.” That is, the more users there are,
animated by the same moral and political the faster overall value increases for
philosophy engrained in our country’s everyone. Conversely, the exclusion of
founding philosophy: that all are created millions decreases the potential value of the
equal, having the same rights to life, liberty, network many-fold, including if not especially
and the pursuit of happiness. It is also for those who are already connected.
grounded in an economic understanding of
the common good that King touched on in
writing that:
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 21
While the Plan we propose is bold in its call for Businesses have also come to recognize that
changes, we take comfort in knowing the new equity and inclusion are critical for
Administration recognizes the importance of sustainable growth. Chapter Two describes
equity in access to services and in more detail the economic imperatives to
opportunities. As a recent Executive Order close persistent and significant gaps in
mandates, the federal government is now Internet use by Americans of color, those with
committed to pursuing “a comprehensive lower educational levels, lower income, and
approach to advancing equity, including for those who live in sparsely populated areas of
people of color and others who have been the country.
historically underserved, marginalized, and
adversely affected by persistent poverty and What are the critical gaps? We focus
inequality. Affirmatively advancing equity, particular attention on four distinct but
civil rights, racial justice, and equal interrelated challenges. While the pandemic
opportunity is now the responsibility of the has shined a glaring spotlight on each of
whole of our government. Because them, these gaps have persisted for at least
advancing equity requires a systematic the past decade:
approach to embedding fairness in decision-
making processes, executive departments The Availability Gap. Broadband network
and agencies (agencies) must recognize and availability is the most basic pre-requisite to
work to redress inequities in their policies and achieving digital equity and inclusion.
programs that serve as barriers to equal Unfortunately, millions of American homes,
opportunity. By advancing equity across the businesses, and other enterprises cannot
federal government, we can create connect to a broadband network capable of
opportunities for the improvement of allowing them to fully participate in the
communities that have been historically economy, obtain an education and health
underserved, which benefits everyone.” The services, train, search, and apply for a job,
Executive Order further mandates that “each and otherwise participate in society. In
agency must assess whether, and to what Chapter 3, we propose a number of policies
extent, its programs and policies perpetuate that, if implemented, would close this gap
systemic barriers to opportunities and within three years.
benefits for people of color and other
underserved groups.” The Adoption Gap. Even among those
Americans for whom a broadband network is
Such an assessment will inevitably find that available, there are still tens of millions who
today, and to an even a greater extent in the have not adopted broadband in their homes.
future, those opportunities and benefits are In Chapter 4, we review the causes of that
either best or exclusively provided online. It gap, including digital literacy and digital
is not surprising that in a report by the readiness, and how they can be overcome to
Partnership for Public Service on “Federal assure that all families can both have and
Success Stories from the COVID-19 benefit from broadband in their homes.
Pandemic”, the exemplars of improving
service to customers all involved an online The Affordability Gap. For millions of
innovation. One example was the Veterans’ Americans who do not subscribe to
Administration developing a COVID-19 broadband, the cost of service remains an
“chatbot” to triage veterans based on their overwhelming obstacle to adoption. Though
specific questions and needs. Another was the current Lifeline program has been
the CDC developing a coronavirus “self- adapted to subsidize broadband for the
checker,” used by over 13 million users, that poorest households, legacy features and
assists people in checking their symptoms other limitations of the program’s basic design
and instructing them what to do next, make it a poor fit as a long-term and
reducing the burden on health care systems sustainable solution. In Chapter 5, we
across the country. These models, while propose more efficient funding and
deserving of praise, are not available to those distribution mechanisms to close the
who are not online. Therefore, as discussed affordability gap within three years through a
throughout this Plan, a foundation stone of the new program we call Lifeline+.
efforts called for in the Executive Order should
be universal access to the tools of the digital
economy and society.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 22
The Access to Economic Opportunity and service, we should be agnostic as to the
Participation Gap. While the digital economy technology or technologies of preference.
has created the greatest opportunity for
wealth accumulation in history, those The Plan is also provider neutral. ISPs can be
opportunities are not equitably distributed commercial, governmental, public/private,
throughout society. This means that the jobs utility, or community-based, so long as they
especially the higher paying technology deliver broadband that enables full
industry have not been filled by Blacks and participation.
Latinxs in any significant way. The National
Urban League’s 2018 State of Black America While we see the Plan as critical for making
Report found that of the 40,000 employees of progress towards a more equitable and
four major Silicon Valley technology firms, inclusive America, we recognize that the lack
only 1,000 were Blacks; the number for Latinx of home broadband Internet services is only
is paltry. Moreover, business inclusion and one of the many severe challenges
opportunity in the growing tech sector has experienced by the poorest Americans.
lagged miserably for Blacks and Latinxs. In Millions today have difficulty, especially
Chapter 6, we address ways that the public during times of economic downturns, paying
and private sectors, working together, can their rent or mortgage or of having enough
help close that gap. food to eat. Many live in substandard
housing. According to the U.S. census, 1.6
There is an additional challenge, which while million Americans still live in homes that do not
it receives less attention in public policy have running water. Home electricity is a
debates, nonetheless presents a serious prerequisite for using any Internet service.
obstacle to digital equity and inclusion. That Yet many low-income households cannot
is the challenge of improving how we actually afford electricity, if not on an on-going basis,
utilize the digital platform to improve essential then during times of particular economic
services for all. COVID-19 has forced our hardship. According to a recent survey, in the
economy and society to run a massive—if early months of the COVID-19 crisis, “13% of
unplanned—experiment in “remote respondents had been unable to pay an
everything.” That experiment is yielding some energy bill during the prior month, 9% had
positive trends, such as in the utilization of received an electricity utility shutoff notice,
telehealth, while also showing that we have a and 4% had had their electric utility service
long way to go to use the new capability more disconnected.” Such homes are unlikely to
effectively, such as in education. be able to enjoy a home Internet service at
any price.
We need to be more intentional in developing
these new capabilities to assure that they lift These and other social and economic
up, rather than disadvantage, low-income and challenges are outside the scope of this Plan,
communities of color. In Chapters 7 through though they play a significant part in our ability
13, we propose specific and detailed public to fully close the remaining broadband gaps.
and private actions to utilize broadband Over half a million Americans are homeless,
networks and the applications that run on for example, rendering “home” Internet
them to deliver essential services more service impossible. And 43 million U.S. adults
effectively and efficiently in health care, are functionally illiterate, creating a severe if
education, workforce development, general not complete obstacle to deriving the benefits
government services, and civic engagement. of Internet connectivity.
In designing policies to overcome the gaps, The inability to solve every problem, however,
we have approached the challenge in a is not an excuse for failing to solve those we
technology-neutral fashion. We believe the can, particularly problems for which the kind
availability gap, for example, may be of targeted policies we propose can quickly
addressed through a number of different and efficiently generate significant and
technologies, including fiber, cable, hybrid sustainable improvements. The
wired networks, fixed wireless, mobile or fixed recommendations in this Plan do not take
cellular, Wi-Fi, and satellite. So long as they away from efforts to solve other problems.
facilitate digital equity and inclusion, and Rather, to a significant extent, they lay the
meet defined standards for broadband groundwork for addressing a number of
problems that have their roots, for example, in
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 23
inadequate access to quality education,
health care or job training for jobs of the
future.
Further, while the policies proposed here will
accelerate the availability of networks
everywhere, with everyone connected and
utilizing broadband Internet at home to
access essential services more effectively
and efficiently, we also know that achieving
these goals is not a straight path. What King
wrote about the Civil Rights movement
applies here: “We will err and falter as we
climb the unfamiliar slopes of steep
mountains, but there is no alternative, well-
trod, level path.”
In that light, we need institutional capacity to
experiment, evaluate and, when necessary,
course correct. In Chapter 14, we propose
ways the government can build that capacity,
and continually improve how it facilitates
digital equity and inclusion. As the National
Broadband Plan stated less eloquently than
King but in the language of the technology
ecosystem, “this plan is in beta and always
will be.”
King closed his book with words that ring true
for this effort: “We are now faced with the fact
that tomorrow is today. We are confronted
with the fierce urgency of now. In this
unfolding conundrum of life and history there
is such a thing as being too late.”
We don’t think it is too late. But given the
speed with which our economy and society is
now moving towards “remote everything,” we
need to move swiftly on this Plan. Otherwise,
we risk increasing rather than decreasing the
dangerous chasms that have already formed.
We have the capacity to move much closer to
the community King envisioned. But if,
instead, technology continues to breed a
society and economy that is less equitable
and less inclusive, chaos will be the inevitable
and tragic outcome.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 24
Chapter 2.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
THE ECONOMIC
CASE FOR
DIGITAL EQUITY
AND INCLUSION
Achieving digital equity and inclusion is, first and foremost, a moral imperative. But
beyond issues of human rights and racial justice, there are potent economic reasons to
ensure that broadband service at home is available to all Americans, and for helping
those who remain offline for whatever reasons to overcome the obstacles that keep them
from participating in digital life.
An extensive literature on digital equity and investment in digital equity and inclusion can
inclusion has persuasively established the be summarized into three main arguments:
social value of universal adoption, as well as
the systemic and personal obstacles that The Rising Tide. Universal broadband can
make it an elusive goal. As noted in Chapter produce positive public externalities, creating
1, the 2010 National Broadband Plan laid out a more just, educated, and affluent society.
the economic case for solving the “digital
exclusion” crisis, noting how the cost of digital The Magic of Network Effects. Increasing
exclusion is large and growing and that cost returns to scale, via network effects, of a more
“imposes inefficiencies on our society as one- complete, robust, and equitable digital
third of Americans carry out tasks by means society.
that take more time, effort and resources than
if they had used broadband. Since The E-Government Win-Win. Decreasing the
government agencies must maintain both costs and increasing the benefits of
offline and online systems for transactions, government services.
many government services are not as
effective or efficient as they could be.” This chapter briefly reviews each of these
arguments.
As the National Broadband Plan and the
supporting literature suggests, economic
rationales for sustained and increasing public
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 26
2.1. RISING TIDE the network protocols themselves and the
limits of early server capacity, constrained the
number of simultaneous users who could be
As the pandemic has brought into sharp relief, supported in the same local area or
universal broadband connectivity is a goal accessing the same websites, without
that would benefit not only those who do not performance degrading noticeably for
currently use the Internet, but also those who everyone.
are already online. In that sense, it is similar
to public education, which provides benefits These capacity constraints, however, have
even to taxpayers without children. The more been significantly reduced for many locations
educated a society is, the lower the incidence and applications. Three factors contributed to
of poverty and crime, for example, and the the solution: higher-capacity network
lower the costs of public health. Education, technologies, including fiber-optic cable
moreover, boosts earning potential and throughout the network and advanced mobile
overall economic output, providing in turn a networks (4G LTE and now 5G), better-
more stable tax base for services useful to optimized networking protocols, notably
everyone, including national defense, police DOCSIS 3.1, which is used by most cable
and fire departments, basic research and providers, and improved applications and
development, and the social safety net. architectures, including data compression,
Broadband adoption, to use an economic streaming media, content delivery networks,
term, generates positive externalities. and Internet exchange points. Each of these
innovations have been the result of massive
Even at the time of the National Broadband private investments, enabled by effective
Plan in 2010, it was already clear that policy frameworks for most of the last quarter
broadband Internet, both directly as century. Device capabilities have also
infrastructure and as a platform for delivering increased, in parallel with capacity
services in better and cheaper ways, had the enhancements.
potential to generate substantial, even
revolutionary, positive externalities. By now, The specifics of these innovations are not
value generated by the network and its relevant here. What is relevant is the end-
growing range of incremental and disruptive result: vastly improved efficiency and
innovations far exceeds even the immense expanded capacity on broadband networks.
costs already spent in its construction and Regardless of the last-mile technology on
continuing improvement. While over two which broadband is delivered, nearly all
trillion dollars has been spent building broadband users have seen dramatic
modern broadband networks in the U.S. increases in speed. Today, the average is
alone, the market value of just the top twenty 157 Mbps, an increase of 3,825%. As network
Internet companies—most of which didn’t performance during the COVID-19 crisis has
exist twenty years ago—is more than double made crystal clear, even if the remaining
that amount. From an economic standpoint, millions of unconnected U.S. homes suddenly
that is a profound example of a positive went online, broadband capacity could easily
externality for the country. handle the volume. Similar durability—let
alone upgrades—have not been seen in other
Meanwhile, the virtual nature of digital infrastructure, such as power and water,
information generates further positive which have deteriorated in quality in many
economies of scale. No matter how many parts of the country.
people are searching on Google, binge-
watching the latest video content, or At the same time, the fixed cost of service per
participating in video conferences for work, subscriber has declined, as capital and
education, or family life, the information and operating expenses are spread among
software being “used” does not diminish in millions of additional consumers every year.
value or usefulness by simultaneous or future The result has been dramatic decreases in
users. (Indeed, as noted below, it likely unit prices for transit, processing, and
increases in value the more it is used). storage. For the last several years, the price
of each gigabyte of cellular data usage has
The same could not initially be said for the fallen approximately 50% each year. (Of
network itself. In the early days of broadband, course, most users are now sending,
many of the delivery technologies, as well as receiving, processing, and storing vastly
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 27
increased amounts of data, so those declining serial use. Everyone can read the same
prices do not necessarily translate to lower digital texts, search the same databases,
bills.) watch the same streaming content, and make
use of the same video conferencing, e-
The net result is that we are now living in a commerce, and government services
world of abundant broadband capacity, applications all at once. The use neither
enough to assume that the processing, degrades nor diminishes the integrity or future
storage, and transportation of all the value of the information.
information on the Internet can be used by
millions of additional users in the near future In fact, digital information has an additional
without noticeable degradation. property that makes it even more valuable
than other non-rivalrous goods. In many
This means there are compelling economic cases, as digital information sources are
reasons, beyond profitability, to expand accessed, searched, annotated, and viewed,
coverage and adoption as widely as possible. the underlying information not only retains its
The benefits to broadband providers, as well value but can actually become more valuable
as to society as a whole, favor universal for subsequent uses and users. Economists
adoption. More users mean more refer to this phenomenon as network effects.
contributors to network fixed costs—the
majority of the providers’ cost of service—and For information networks in particular, network
opportunities to lower marginal operating effects offer perhaps the most potent
costs through economies of scale. For the economic argument yet for universal
U.S. as a whole, more importantly, universal adoption. Consider the work of computer
adoption means a more equitable society networking pioneer Robert Metcalfe, who in
with, as has been shown with correlations to 1993 calculated positive returns to scale in
education and income, lower rates of crime, computer networks in a formula known today
poverty, incarceration, and civil unrest. as “Metcalfe’s Law.” The value of a computer
network, Metcalfe said, was equal to the
Even if many of those users are unable to square of the number of connections, whether
afford retail prices for broadband services, those connections were of devices, users, or
there are ample reasons for private, public, any other component.
and private-public partnerships to subsidize
costs through reduced rates, tax incentives, In networks governed by Metcalfe’s Law,
and direct government support to individuals. including today’s broadband, the overall
When marginal costs are low, and decreasing value of the network doesn’t increase linearly
with scale, subsidizing costs for lower-income by adding more possible connections. That’s
customers can benefit all users. That has because each new node adds not just one
been the theory behind public and private potential new connection. A new user or
broadband support programs that have computer can use the Internet to interact not
operated in the last decade. Though the just with its immediate neighbor, in other
design of the program has substantially words, but with every other user or computer
limited its effectiveness, Lifeline provides already online. The million-and-first Internet
subsidies for 7 million American homes, with user adds a million new possible connections.
an estimated 31 million more households who The billion-and-first device attached to the
have not applied qualifying even under Internet of Things adds a billion new possible
current program rules. connections.
2.2. THE MAGIC OF NETWORK In fact, Metcalfe may have understated the
possibilities of network effects, as his formula
EFFECTS assumes only connections between two end
users. But many broadband applications,
The second economic argument for digital including video conferencing, and social
equity and inclusion is related to the networks, to name just a few, are n-way
characterization of broadband applications connections. You can video conference with
as public goods. As noted above, a non- all or any subset of your colleagues or
rivalrous good, of which digitized information students or family members. And each new
is a particularly good example, does not connection adds that many more new
diminish in value through simultaneous or
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 28
possibilities, each with its own unique The pandemic, however, has highlighted
potential to create non-rivalrous value. several acutely painful inequities and missed
opportunities in applications central to
Metcalfe’s Law goes a long way toward government and government-supported
explaining where all the trillions of dollars of initiatives, including education, public health,
new value the Internet has created has come employment, housing, and the social safety
from, and why the possibility of connecting all net. The Internet has become critical for
the people, places, and things that are students to attend class, for seniors to receive
currently offline is so powerful, exerting almost timely and safe health care, and for everyone
a gravitational force on investors, to exercise such basic rights and necessities
policymakers, and society in general. as job training, preparing to vote, and
accessing government programs and
For our purposes, however, the essential point services, including unemployment insurance,
of network effects is that it makes digital equity SNAP, public housing, consumer protections,
and inclusion an even more urgent law enforcement, health insurance, and social
imperative. Not only does achieving digital security, among many others. For now, and
equity and inclusion improve outcomes and the foreseeable future, those without
reduce overall social costs, it actually broadband, quite simply, cannot effectively
generates new value—and does so at an participate.
accelerating rate the more people we can
connect. The growing importance of these services.
particularly for members of at-risk
Diversity is also critical to network growth. communities, and the dangers, if not
The on-going digital conversation, which has impossibility, of using them in person, has
become more robust on a daily basis as erased any remaining doubt about the
broadband infrastructure and applications importance or relevance of the Internet in the
improve, is missing essential voices. In the lives of those who have remained offline.
U.S., some communities—communities of Tragically, those who most need these
color, older Americans, rural Americans, services are also the least likely to subscribe
Native Americans, those with less education, to a broadband connection at home to access
those with lower incomes—are them.
disproportionately absent. Their insights,
their perspectives, and their needs are not That reliance is unlikely to disappear with the
being heard online. eventual end of the current COVID-19 related
health crisis. For better and for worse, the
Without them, the Internet risks becoming pandemic has revealed an astonishing range
increasingly insular, parochial, and even of inefficiencies, inequities, and lost
fragile—a digital bubble. We need those who opportunities in pre-crisis systems, both those
are offline to join the conversation just as physically based and those already available
much as they need the services connectivity in digital form. Despite trillions of dollars in
makes possible. From an economic both private and public spending on
perspective, in fact, the Internet needs the infrastructure over the last twenty years, key
disconnected even more than they need it. agencies and industries have not invested
enough in basic digitization of their core
services, nor have they begun to look for
2.3. THE E-GOVERNMENT innovative ways to do more for current and
WIN-WIN future users. We need only remember the
embarrassment of several governors having
to put out urgent calls at the start of the crisis
Even before the COVID-19 crisis accelerated for retired COBOL programmers to work on
our reliance on the Internet, digital technology antiquated benefit systems that could not
was quickly becoming a basic tool for handle sudden surges in volume. Or, at the
economic and social well-being. That was start of the COVID-19 outbreak, of Floridians
particularly true for a wide range of both risking their health to stand in line for paper
public and private activities, including unemployment forms when the state’s online
shopping, entertainment, lifelong learning, system crashed and could not be repaired.
and maintaining family and community
connections, to name just a few.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 29
Under and mis-investment in IT, for a variety Americans will quickly see the full potential of
of reasons, create more serious problems for existing public and private online applications
government supplied and supported services and services, giving them powerful incentives
than they do for any industry in the private to embrace fully their new digital lives—a truly
sector. And the painful irony is that it is virtuous cycle of economic improvement,
precisely the members of communities least reversing a long history of failed efforts.
likely to have broadband connections who are
the most reliant on government services, who For example, the Department of Labor today
may be deterred from subscribing in part funds nearly 2,500 American Job Centers to
because the essential services they need are help the unemployed search for work. But
often not available in efficient, reliable, due to the pandemic, many of these Centers
secure, and easy-to-use digital forms. are temporarily closed or have shifted to
Americans who are the least likely to have online-only access. Other employment-
broadband—older, rural, less-educated and related services offered by government
lower-income—are all heavy users of agencies, including some specific to older
government services. For example, 53% of Americans, Native Americans, farmworkers,
benefits go to persons 65 and older. and refugees, are likewise only accessible
online.
Any program aimed at solving problems of
digital equity and inclusion, as noted in the It is also worth noting that, to date, different
following chapters, must include not only federal and state government agencies
support for individuals without available provide these benefits, and in many cases
network services or the ability to adopt them some information is already on-line. To
but also to improve the applications that achieve digital equity and inclusion, we
digital have-nots most require. Deploying e- urgently need e-government apps that pull
government apps quickly would not only together relevant information across local,
increase online adoption, it would state, regional, and agency boundaries, and
simultaneously improve government which are built with design principles focused
performance and lower its cost. on convenience for the user. It is one of the
best ways to convince those who have not
Though doing so will of course require adopted the Internet in part because they do
considerable up-front expenditures of public not see the value in doing so.
funds, the result will be systems that can
deliver basic entitlements and services more To jump-start digitization and adoption of
efficiently. As in the private sector, modern these essential services, we need to harness
information systems can dramatically lower entrepreneurial talent that today is focused on
on-going operating costs, generating surplus building the next great gaming or social
that can pay back the capital costs many media sensation. That is precisely the
times over during the lifetime of new and mission of the U.S. Digital Service, which
upgraded e-government systems. recruits top designers, engineers, product
managers, and policy experts and pairs them
Better systems will also ensure that those who with forward-thinking civil servants, deploying
today cannot gain meaningful access to high-powered teams “to untangle the most
government services for which they qualify, as important government services.”
well as such basic rights of democratic
citizenship as voting and public education, There’s also Data.gov, which has released
will be served in a manner that is safer and hundreds of thousands of government
more dignified, with fewer opportunities for datasets, open to “civic hackers, tech
waste, fraud, or abuse. entrepreneurs, data scientists, and
developers of all stripes.” Using Data.gov,
In that regard, a revitalized plan to achieve hundreds of helpful apps have already been
digital equity and inclusion offers built, but there is much more to do. And data
policymakers a profound opportunity both to sources must be populated by information
reduce the costs of delivering government relating to the entire population, not just those
services, and to maximize the benefits of who are already online. As more Americans
those services for those who need them most. adopt online services, the more complete—
By making government more accessible and therefore valuable—these datasets will
online, moreover, newly-connected become.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 30
Chapter 3.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
CLOSING THE
BROADBAND
AVAILABILITY GAP
3.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Despite a decade which saw private, public and hybrid organizations investing nearly
$2 trillion in broadband infrastructure, the unfortunate fact remains that millions of
American homes, businesses and other institutions have no available option to connect
to a broadband network capable of supporting full participation in the modern economy.
That includes the ability to use the Internet to train, search, and apply for employment,
obtain an education and health services, and otherwise benefit from life in an
increasingly digital society.
Broadband availability and devices with 3.3. GOALS
which to access the Internet are the most
basic pre-requisites to achieving digital equity
and inclusion. We seek to close the To close the broadband availability gap, the
broadband availability gap, which is generally federal government should take the following
found in less densely populated areas. Most actions:
of these areas are populated by low-income
communities, including communities of color. • By the end of 2021, the FCC should define
the characteristics of Internet access that
3.2. VISION are necessary in order for a location to be
considered as “served with broadband”
and the minimum level of Internet service
Every home, anchor institution, and business that government funds should support in
location in the United States should have efforts to bring broadband to an unserved
available to them at least one broadband area, based on reasonable prediction of
network capable of providing the benefits of excess capacity and future application
current and future economic, social, civic, requirements over the next 10 years, with
educational, medical, commercial and “excess capacity” and “application
entertainment applications. requirements” to be defined by the FCC,
following analysis of user requirements for
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 32
current and emerging applications and connect the final 2% of premises in the
their technical and utilization United States.
characteristics.
• By the end of 2024, the FCC or other
• By the end of 2021, the FCC, in government entity should hold another
consultation with other federal, state, and competitive process designed to assure
local governments, should publish best deployment of a network capable of
practices for public entities to reduce the providing broadband to any remaining
costs of, and time required for, broadband unserved premises in the United States.
deployment.
3.4. THE CURRENT SITUATION
• By early 2022, the FCC should produce an
accurate map of broadband availability in
America, including the identification, on a 3.4.1. BROADBAND IS STILL
granular level, of those locations without UNAVAILABLE TO MILLIONS OF
an available network, based on the AMERICAN HOMES.
updated definition of broadband, so that
public funding can initially be prioritized In January 2021, the Federal Communications
for areas lacking any option for Commission declared in its 14th Broadband
broadband. The map should be updated Deployment Report that, at the end of 2019,
frequently and distinguish different levels 14.4 million Americans lacked any option for
of broadband service. By 2022, Congress subscribing to home broadband using a
should provide additional funding to be “fixed terrestrial” service with speeds of at
used by the FCC or other government least 25 Mbps download and 3 Mbps upload
entity to hold one or more competitive (“25/3 Mbps”). Of a total evaluated
processes to obtain for federal subsidies population of 328.2 million, the FCC estimated
to deploy additional broadband 304.3 million had 25/3 Mbps service available
infrastructure, closing the availability gap using wired technology (principally fiber and
to less than 2% of American households. cable, and to a lesser extent DSL), and an
additional 9.5 million with 25/3 Mbps service
available only using fixed-wireless
• In 2022, the FCC or other government technology.
entity should hold a competitive process
for federal subsidies, utilizing the FCC’s There are data that one could use to argue
improved map of broadband availability to that the number of Americans lacking any
target unserved locations. option for home broadband may be, at least
theoretically, much lower. For example, the
• By the end of 2023, deployments from FCC reports, but does not count towards its
authorized winning bidders should be annual assessment of whether broadband is
underway to provide broadband to at least available, deployments of broadband that use
98% of premises in America. non-terrestrial technologies, including cellular
and satellite networks, many of which offer
• By the end of 2023, the FCC should speeds that meet or even exceed the FCC’s
update its map of broadband availability current definition of broadband (or
in America, again identifying on a granular “Advanced Telecommunications Capability”
level those areas still without an available (ATC)). According to the Broadband
network, now or scheduled for Deployment Report, for example,
completion, so that public funding can be “…deployment data for satellite broadband
prioritized for the remaining areas lacking indicate that satellite service offering 25/3
any option for broadband. Mbps speeds is available to nearly all of the
population.” The agency does not count
these deployments, however, because
• The FCC should evaluate, on an on-going “satellite services have a relatively low
basis, the status of new delivery subscription rate despite their apparent
technologies, including but not limited to, widespread availability.”
low earth orbiting satellites, 5G mobile and
fixed wireless, and any other new wireless
technologies, and develop a plan to There may be other reasons to exclude, at
least for now, mobile and satellite
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 33
technologies from any calculation of homes lacking broadband availability are in
broadband availability. For purposes of this rural areas. This does not mean, however,
Plan, we will follow the FCC’s analysis, and that availability is not a substantial issue in
include as meeting the standard for some urban communities of color. There are
“available” service only those premises that also significant areas in the United States that
can be served by fixed terrestrial broadband, lack broadband that are populated by Black
with speeds of at least 25/3 Mbps. Americans, Latinxs, and Native Americans.
Using that criteria, the actual number of It may also be the case that the FCC’s current
Americans lacking any option for fixed 25/3 Mbps definition is no longer sufficient.
terrestrial service may in fact be significantly Indeed, there is currently a debate—one that
higher than the reported 14.4 million. has intensified with the increased use of
Congress and the FCC both acknowledge broadband caused by COVID-19—as to
that under the agency’s long-standing data whether those speeds are sufficient for a
collection methodology, if a broadband nation that has moved so much of its work,
provider tells the FCC that it can offer service education, shopping, entertainment, civic
to a single customer in a given census block, engagement, and social connections online.
the agency treats that entire census block as Since the outbreak of the COVID-19
served. This assumption overstates actual pandemic, more and more U.S. homes can be
availability, particularly in rural areas. In characterized as broadband-dependent, with
addition, the FCC does not routinely verify or multiple users relying daily on broadband for
audit provider-supplied data, allowing, for simultaneous video calling, streaming
example, one company to overstate its entertainment, shopping and maintaining
service coverage by tens of millions of people social connections. Even once the current
and another to find that it had overstated its crisis eases, there is reason to believe that
coverage in thousands of areas. user behaviors will not revert to previous
patterns. Americans have learned the value
A sampled check of availability by an of broadband applications they may not have
independent group in 2020 compared actual been familiar with, and will continue to rely on
availability findings to the assumptions made them, and at an accelerating rate.
in the FCC’s analysis of the data it collects,
and found considerably greater gaps in More broadly, the agency has made little
availability. Their report concluded that the effort in the last decade to justify the speed
actual number of Americans without an standards it has adopted, or why download
available option for broadband network was and upload speeds should form the basis—
probably closer to 42 million Americans, a let alone the sole basis—for determining what
number more than double the number constitutes ATC. Download and upload
estimated by the FCC based on the data set speeds capture only the connection from the
available at that time. ISPs closest node to and from the home. But
many other factors determine the quality of a
Criticism of the FCC’s broadband mapping user’s interaction with any given Internet
process has been offered on a bi-partisan service, including the design of the website,
basis, including in a report by the GAO. In app, or Internet service being accessed and
response, Congress in March 2020 passed the demand on it at any given time, the kind of
the Broadband DATA Act, directing the FCC transit the Internet service utilizes, the
to collect data and prepare maps that report performance of intervening services, such as
broadband availability in the United States cloud security intermediaries, and other
much more precisely. In December 2020, network optimization technologies, which are
Congress appropriated the FCC’s requested constantly being introduced and updated.
funding to accomplish that task, and the FCC
subsequently adopted final rules in January 3.4.2. BROADBAND AVAILABILITY IS
2021. ALSO A PERSISTENT AND UNIQUE
CHALLENGE FOR TRIBAL LANDS.
While the precise number of Americans
lacking any option for home broadband using Tribal lands present an important, persistent,
fixed terrestrial service is not certain, it is clear and unique set of challenges. Ten years ago,
that, given significantly higher costs of the National Broadband Plan noted that the
infrastructure deployment, the vast majority of FCC had found, “[b]y virtually any measure,
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 34
communities on Tribal lands have historically Unfortunately, today’s policies still are
had less access to telecommunications grounded in that history. As the GAO found
services than any other segment of the in a 2018 study, while the FCC has taken
population.” The Plan noted that: some steps to promote and support Tribal
entities’ ability to license and utilize spectrum,
these efforts were not sufficient to address
Tribal spectrum needs. Among other
[M]any Tribal communities face significant problems, the FCC does not collect key
information related to spectrum over Tribal
obstacles to the deployment of broadband lands or communicate it to Tribal entities,
even though FCC has the information—
infrastructure, including high buildout costs, including broadband availability data from
limited financial resources that deter providers, and information on geographic
areas covered by spectrum licenses—that
investment by commercial providers and a could be used for such analysis. Moreover,
shortage of technically trained members the GAO found that the tribes faced barriers
in participating in spectrum auctions, as well
who can undertake deployment and adoption as in purchasing spectrum rights in
secondary market transactions.
planning. Current funding programs
administered by NTIA and RUS do not 3.4.3. MULTIPLE FEDERAL AND STATE
PROGRAMS AVAILABLE TO ASSIST WITH
specifically target funding for projects on BROADBAND DEPLOYMENT.
Tribal lands and are insufficient to address While the FCC Universal Service Fund is by
all of these challenges. Tribes need far the largest source of funding for
addressing the availability gap, the NTIA’s
substantially greater financial support than is Broadband Funding Guide identifies nearly
presently available to them and accelerating 60 direct and indirect federal programs,
located in more than a dozen federal
Tribal broadband deployment will require agencies, that also support broadband
deployment efforts. In addition, there are
increased funding. several programs that either have been
initiated or expanded through various COVID-
19 relief legislation that provide broadband
assistance. Most states also have their own
Unfortunately, the situation has not materially broadband deployment programs. While
changed over the past decade. According to there is information about all of these, there
the FCC, as of December 31, 2019, fixed has been to date no coordinated effort that
terrestrial 25/3 Mbps broadband service was enables service providers, communities, or
deployed to 79.1% of Americans on Tribal other stakeholders to efficiently determine
lands, well under the 95.6% level for the entire which programs they may be eligible for, or to
U.S. population. what extent these programs may serve their
needs.
The FCC has concluded that the challenging
geography and population density of Tribal 3.4.4 CONGRESS HAS APPROPRIATED
areas means that addressing the broadband FUNDS THAT CAN BE USED FOR
needs of Tribal areas is most likely to be BROADBAND DEPLOYMENT.
accomplished with non-terrestrial networks,
but tribes have not had the ability to control As we were concluding the writing of this Plan,
radio spectrum in their jurisdiction. The Congress passed the “American Rescue Plan
problem has its roots in the Federal Act of 2021.” Two provisions related to
“Reservation Era” policies of the late 1800s, broadband deployment. First, Congress
which gave the federal government the power appropriated $350 billion to state, local and
to sell Tribal frequency resources, along with tribal governments for a variety of uses, but
other natural resources, to for-profit among the eligible uses are “to make
corporations, without Tribal consultation. necessary investments in “water, sewer or
broadband infrastructure.” Second,
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 35
Congress appropriated $10 billion to the significant public funding, beyond what
Department of Treasury to distribute to states, Congress and the FCC have established to
territories and tribal governments to “carry out date for this purpose, including the $20.4
critical capital projects directly enabling work, billion currently budgeted for the Rural Digital
education and health monitoring, including Opportunity Fund.
remote access…” These appropriations
provide significant new funding for states, How will we fund the closing of the availability
localities and tribal governments that maybe gap? Currently, the most significant source of
used to directly address availability gaps in funding for government-assisted
their jurisdictions. deployments comes from the Universal
Service Program, administered by the FCC,
3.5. KEY CHALLENGE TO which supports deployment in rural areas,
connectivity for schools, libraries and health
OVERCOME care institutions, and subsidized service for
low-income households. That program is
Universal availability is necessary—but not funded by communications companies, which
sufficient—for full digital equity and inclusion. pay a percentage of their interstate and
The fundamental challenge to achieving it is international voice revenues, and certain
primarily one of economics. As is true with revenues associated with other services, to
other networked infrastructure, such as the FCC’s Universal Service Fund (USF). This
electricity, water, sewage, and telephony, the percentage is called the contribution factor.
costs of making service available to any The contribution factor is adjusted as
individual household is largely a function of necessary on a quarterly basis, and is
density. As one would expect, the broadband increased or decreased depending on actual
availability gap is greatest in areas of lowest and expected participation by qualifying
density. Because service providers in these users of all Universal Service programs.
areas must build over larger areas, while at
the same time earning revenues from fewer The contribution factor has several problems.
subscribers, as density declines it becomes One is that, as interstate telecommunications
less likely that providers can earn enough revenues go down, the contribution factor
revenue to cover the costs of deploying and must of necessity go up. In the second
operating networks, including expected quarter of 2021, the contribution factor rose to
returns on capital, to justify the necessary a new high of 33.4%. Five years ago, the
private capital investments. percentage was only 17.1%, and ten years
ago, it was 13.6%. At some point, the factor
For over two decades, U.S. policymakers will be so high that the system will collapse.
have understood that private capital alone Second, some view the fee as a regressive
cannot close the availability gap in the most tax, as it applies equally to both high-income
sparsely populated areas of the United and low-income subscribers.
States. Federal, state, and public/private
partnerships aimed at subsidizing capital and There are also significant challenges in
operating costs to overcome these economic determining just how much public funding will
realities have, to date, provided more than be needed to close the availability gap and
$100 billion to extend broadband availability how, where, and when funds should be
to high-cost areas, through a variety of grants, distributed. These challenges are addressed,
subsidies, loans, and other incentives to respectively, in Sections 3.6 and 3.8, below.
private, public, and private-public providers.
3.6. COST TO DEPLOY NETWORKS
Continual upgrades in the performance, and
reductions in the costs, of emerging access TO UNSERVED AREAS
technologies may, on the plus side, continue
to improve the business case for some areas, The cost to close the availability gap will vary
making private investment more likely. Still, depending on policy choices and actions in
deploying broadband networks similar in four areas that we discuss below. However,
performance to those that are currently given the ever-growing importance of
serving the vast majority of homes in the broadband in daily life, we would urge
United States to areas that currently do not decision makers to adopt and fund the most
have them will require additional and
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 36
ambitious goals possible to assure digital temporary, as the gap may reemerge if the
equity and inclusion. standard is later raised. Indeed, this has
occurred repeatedly, as the federal
3.6.1. SETTING THE FLOOR ON SERVICE: government has provided funding to service
BELOW WHAT PERFORMANCE STANDARD providers to deploy networks using delivery
IS A HOUSEHOLD DEEMED “UNSERVED” technologies that could not easily and/or cost-
BY BROADBAND SERVICE? effectively be upgraded as the standard
increased. As discussed in the
Unlike telephony, electricity, or water— recommendations, policy makers should seek
infrastructure-based services that are, by and to avoid this treadmill, and to achieve digital
large, either “available” or “unavailable”—the equity and inclusion in a more sustainable
evolving nature of broadband makes the task manner.
of calculating the number of “unserved”
Americans a significant policy choice in itself. 3.6.2. ASSESSING THE AVAILABILITY
This is inherent in the Congressional mandate GAP: WHERE ARE THE UNSERVED
which requires that the Universal Service LOCATIONS AND HOW MANY ARE
system assure all areas of the country have THERE?
“reasonably comparable” service at
“reasonably comparable” prices. That To assess the availability gap under a
statutory language implicitly recognizes that particular definition of “broadband,”
some variation across the country is policymakers need accurate and frequently
acceptable, but policymakers do not agree on updated data indicating where the unserved
where to draw the line. locations both are and will likely remain given
expectations about future deployments, both
There is no disagreement that the demands of subsidized and otherwise. A process to
everyday applications on broadband generate such data is discussed in detail in
networks have grown over time, and that Section 3.8.1. Here we highlight that the size
consumer expectations for service quality of the gap will vary greatly based on the
have increased. Consequently, the minimum performance standard adopted and whether
download/upload speeds used by the FCC to some complying technologies (e.g., satellite
determine whether fixed terrestrial service is service and some high-speed cellular
deemed available have been regularly services) nonetheless continue to be
increased as part of the agency’s annual excluded for other reasons in calculating
report on deployment. This floor has risen “unserved” areas.
over time from 0.2/0.2 Mbps in 1999, to 4/1
Mbps in 2010, to the current standard of 25/3 Based on FCC deployment findings released
Mbps, adopted in 2015. Further, it has also in January 2021, as of 2019 the current 25/3
become increasingly important to consider Mbps standard translates to an availability
aspects of service quality other than speed to gap that ranges between 0 and 24 million
ensure that an available service can indeed people—24 million if only fixed wired offerings
meet users’ needs. (principally fiber and cable) are counted, 14
million if fixed wireless offerings are added,
As the speed requirements have been raised, and no availability gap at all if satellite
a number of locations transitioned from offerings are also included (Exhibit 3.1).
“served” to “unserved,” increasing the
availability gap. For example, a location with If download and upload speeds were to be
only 10/1 Mbps broadband service counted raised, however, the availability gap
by the FCC as served under a 4/1 Mbps increases significantly. For example, at
standard became unserved when that 100/10 Mbps, the gap in 2019 would have
standard was raised to 25/3 Mbps. Under the been 27-30 million people, growing to 42-43
10/1 Mbps standard in effect pre-2015, over million at a standard of 250/25 Mbps. At the
97% of the U.S. population would currently be same time, however, improvements over the
deemed to have an available fixed terrestrial next three to five years in fixed-wireless
service. performance and, more speculatively, low-
earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellations that
More generally, a rising standard means that may be able to offer higher speeds (and lower
even as actions are taken to reduce the latency) than current high-earth orbit satellite
availability gap, its closing may only be
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 37
service, could change the availability Though the speed standards for what the FCC
equation dramatically in the other direction. considers as service that constitutes available
broadband and the minimum speeds the FCC
Likewise, including cellular offerings that and other agencies set to qualify for eligibility
already meet today’s standard and potential for public infrastructure funding are often
increases (including some LTE and 5G conflated, policymakers may and in fact have
offerings), but which are currently not counted used different standards for the two. For
by the FCC’s availability findings, could example, a rational policy choice may be to
likewise have a dramatic positive impact on consider locations without access to 25/3
the availability gap. This makes setting and Mbps as unserved, but then to subsidize only
regularly revisiting an appropriate standard, deployments of higher speeds than the
as noted above, increasingly critical, current standard to serve them. Indeed, such
particularly in determining how best to spend a “network leapfrogging” policy could
limited public funds to support future supercharge the broadband-based benefits
deployments in unserved areas of the that closing the availability gap would bring to
country. unserved communities and prove a more
cost-effective use of public funds over the
3.6.3. SETTING THE FLOOR ON medium-to-long term.
SUBSIDIZED DEPLOYMENTS: WHAT IS
THE MINIMUM SERVICE QUALITY THAT
SUBSIDIZED NETWORK DEPLOYMENTS
MUST BE ABLE TO OFFER?
Exhibit 3.1. Size of fixed-broadband deployment gap at different performance standards.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 38
3.6.4. DETERMINING THE COST CURVE: increases substantially as one gets closer
HOW MUCH SUBSIDY IS REQUIRED TO to eliminating the gap entirely. Funding
CLOSE—OR NARROW—THE AVAILABILITY deployment to these locations would
GAP? require a disproportionately large share of
the total budget. Though the ideal policy
The cost to close the availability gap in a given is to fully close the availability gap,
geographical area, either entirely or partially, depending on the size of, and potential
will largely be determined by the three drivers alternative uses for the deployment
discussed in Sections 3.6.1-3 above, namely: budget, a pragmatic second-best
(i) the standard below which broadband is alternative may be to close less than 100%
deemed unavailable; (ii) accurate and of the availability gap, while funding
frequently refreshed mapping to determine cheaper options for the highest-cost
the location and number of unserved areas.2
locations; and (iii) the standard at or above
which subsidized networks are required to Policymakers have at times ignored these
operate in order to receive funding support. trade-offs and funded connections at the high
end of the cost curve. For example, in 2020,
Assuming analytically sound and evidence- the Rural Utility Service awarded Beehive
based choices for (i) and (iii), as well as Telephone Company Inc. a $2.3 million
adequate execution of (ii), an allocation ReConnect grant to deploy a fiber-to-the-
mechanism that roughly aligns subsidies with premises network to four residents, four farms
actual costs, and which prioritizes locations and four businesses in Washington County,
that require the lowest subsidy to achieve Utah, and a $2.7 million grant to deploy a
deployment and sustain ongoing operation,1 fiber-to-the-premises network to connect 147
lessons learned from prior broadband people in Elko County, Nevada. These
deployments lead to two important average out to be more than $33,000 per
conclusions about the cost of closing the home passed.
availability gap:
This is not just a federal problem. For
1. Tradeoffs are necessary between example, the California Advanced Services
universality and quality. Ideally, the Fund (CASF), administered by the state’s
budget allocated to close the availability Public Utility Commission, provides grants to
gap will be sufficient to achieve universal network operators, covering up to 100% of
deployment, with room for future network their total capital costs, for construction of
upgradability to support expansion of the broadband infrastructure in unserved areas of
essential services that must be supported the state. One such grant of nearly $11 million
(see Exhibit 3.2). If this is not possible, that went to Frontier Communications in 2019
policymakers face a choice between covered only 222 homes, for an average price
decreasing deployment to something less per household of over $49,000.
than 100% or lowering the standard at or
above which subsidized networks are To further illustrate the tradeoffs that should
required to operate. As noted above, be examined at the national level, we note that
however, subsidizing deployments that a January 2017 FCC White Paper3 found that
may be difficult or impossible to upgrade with (i) a performance standard defining
creates long-term risks, including the risk “unserved” as lacking access to at least 25/3
of stranded assets, and that public funds Mbps-capable fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP)
are not put to their best and highest use. and/or cable service, and (ii) using then-
current FCC’s deployment data for residential
and small business locations, there were
2. Tradeoffs should be based on a approximately 22 million unserved premises.
conscious policy choice. The most Adopting (iii) a policy of subsidizing only FTTP
sparsely populated and geographically deployments going forward, the paper found
remote locations to serve are, by that the total upfront capital expenditures
definition, the most expensive to serve on required to fully eliminate the availability gap
a per-person basis. As shown in Exhibit would be approximately $80 billion. Critically,
3.3, variations in density distribution within however, approximately 85% of the gap could
any reasonably large set of unserved be closed while still holding to a FTTP policy
geographies means that the cost per for about half that amount. That is, to connect
location to close the available gap
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 39
the first 85%, or 19 million premises, would require ongoing support for shortfalls in
cost about $40 billion, or $2,100 per location. operating expenses.
To connect the last 15% of the unserved
premises, or 3 million premises Though not technology neutral in its
(approximately 2% of all premises) using viewpoint, a September 2019 study4 by the
FTTP, would cost another $40 billion, or consulting firm Cartesian, on behalf of the
$12,800 per location. Fiber Broadband Association, a trade group
whose mission is “to accelerate deployment
Alternatively, connecting the first 90% of the of all-fiber access networks,”5 found that with
gap, or 20 million premises, would cost $45 (i) a performance standard defining
billion, or $2,200 per location, with the last “unserved” as lacking access to FTTP (i.e.,
10%, or 2 million premises, costing another both using a higher standard than the FCC
$35 billion, or $15,600 per location. Further study, and excluding other access
illustrating the shape of the curve, connecting technologies, most notably cable
the first 95% of the gap, or 21 million broadband), there will be (ii) approximately 70
premises, would cost $55 billion, or $2,600 million unserved households by 2025.
per location, with the last 5%, or 1 million Adopting (iii) a performance standard of only
premises, costing another $25 billion, or subsidizing FTTP networks, the total
$22,300 per location. investment required to close 80% of the gap
was estimated to be $86 billion, but 63% of
In addition, while the first 85%, according to the gap could be closed for about half that
the White Paper, would only require a subsidy amount. (The study did not assess the cost of
for capital expenses, the last 15%, even if the entirely closing the gap, i.e., it excludes the
capital expense of the network deployment last 20% of households that would be most
were to be completely subsidized, would expensive to connect with FTTP).
Ideally, budget funds universal, future-proof —
Future-Proof“
$80
broadband… Broadband
$70
I LLUSTRATI VE DATA
$60
$50 Same budget can be used to close 65%
of gap with future-proof broadband,
78% of the gap with intermediate quality
$40 broadband, or the entire gap with
minimum standard broadband Intermediate
Quality
$30 Broadband
$20
… but a lower budget requires a policy choice —
Minimum
Standard“
between universality and quality.
$10
Broadband
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 80% 90% 100%
Portion of Availability Gap Closed by Subsidy
Exhibit 3.2: Depending on budget, a trade off may have to be made between the quality of network
deployed and the degree to which the availability gap is closed.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 40
$80 Closing last
15% of the
gap…
$70
… requires
I LLUSTRATI VE DATA half the total
budget
$60
$50 Assume availability gap is
closed by subsiding locations
in order of increasing cost,
$40 starting with the least
expensive, i.e. working up the
cost curve from left to right …requires
$30 ~45% of the
total budget
$20
…requires
$10 ~40% of the
total budget
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 80% 90% 100%
Portion of Availability Gap Closed by Subsidy
Exhibit 3.3: Even with sufficient budget, given the shape of the cost curve, it may be a reasonable
policy choice to stop before the availability gap is completely closed.
3.7. CURRENT PLANS FOR reach more than 90% of the U.S.
population at the end of decade.
FUTURE NETWORK DEPLOYMENTS
3. The most ambitious plans for extending
With private and public network operators next generation mobile wireless
announcing proposed or planned networks—those stemming from the
deployments of new and upgraded government requirements on T-Mobile as
broadband infrastructure, it may seem that part of its merger with Sprint—involve an
significant portions of the availability gap will expansion of its 5G cellular network to
be closed within a few years, largely without offer 100 Mbps speeds to 90% of the
the need for public funding support. This population by 2026. This 90% is likely to
section provides a high-level analysis of roughly match the geography of the area
planned deployments by private and public covered by cable. Additionally, after
operators. recently doubling its C-Band spectrum
holdings, Verizon predicts that its mobile
wireless networks will cover 175 million
1. Existing telephone companies have people by the end of 2023 and over 250
significant plans for fiber deployments, million people after 2024.
but even taken together, these plans
would leave at least half the customers
currently served by these providers using 4. Municipalities, utilities companies and
DSL technology without a higher-speed other public/private partnerships using a
telephone-based offering. wide range of technical and business
solutions plan to bring Internet coverage
to specific local areas. Taken together,
2. Cable operators have already upgraded however, these deployments are unlikely
significant portions of their networks to to decrease the number of homes without
offer gigabit downstream services and a fixed terrestrial broadband option by
have plans to extend their networks more than 1%.
further, but their networks are unlikely to
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 41
5. A promising technical and business • Change the current funding mechanism.
initiative aimed at closing the availability Alternatives to the current funding
gap, based on currently planned future mechanism include changing the
network deployments, involves the launch methodology to assess feed based on
of thousands of LEO satellites. While phone numbers or connections, or
satellites have long been used for rural broadening the base of assessable
broadband, the distance between the revenues to capture a smaller percentage
home and the satellite has been a key of a larger total. Any effort to reform the
impediment for the service, with speeds funding mechanism for Universal Service
relatively slow and latency relatively high will probably take years. Contribution
compared to terrestrial technologies. LEO reform effort could also face lengthy legal
service has the potential to overcome challenges.
those limitations and satisfy the
requirements of broadband service at • Keep the current system but set a cap on
home, but there is a level of uncertainty as total USF annual funding. Given the
to its ability to provide an acceptable level shrinking revenue base, this would mean
of service, particularly if LEOs are used to a longer process for closing the
address the availability gap of a large availability gap, and could reduce the
population. effectiveness of other Universal Service
programs.
6. Some believe that 5G fixed-wireless
technology offers a compelling new • Keep the current system but do not set a
technology for providing rural broadband. cap on spending. Given the necessary
Proponents of the technology believe that increase in the contribution factor for this
it can provide 1 gigabit per second option, this will likely lead to a collapse of
service over 4 miles from a cell site. One the system.
promising aspect for lowering the cost of
5G deployment, and therefore lowering
the price for the service, is the • Use spectrum revenues. In the recent
development of Open Radio Access debate on authorization for the C-Band
Networks (ORAN). In Chapter 11, we auction, and in previous Congressional
discuss how the government can help can debates, there were bi-partisan
support and accelerate ORAN suggestions that the government’s share
deployments through R & D efforts. of auction proceeds should be allocated
to closing the availability gap or
addressing other Universal Service
3.8. OTHER POLICY challenges. The idea is that the
CONSIDERATIONS communications ecosystem that is paying
for the spectrum should benefit from the
use of those funds to provide services that
In Section 3.6, we noted some of the trade- market forces cannot. Spectrum auctions
offs policy makers have to make to address have produced tens of billions in revenues
the availability gap. Here, we note a few for the government but, it should be noted,
others policy considerations. they are not a routine or dependable
source of funds.
3.8.1. FUNDING SOURCE.
• Use direct Congressional appropriations.
In Section 3.5, we noted that the current Many economists argue that USF should
mechanism for funds to close the availability be funded, like other federal programs,
gap is under considerable stress, as it is through direct Congressional
based on a shrinking revenue stream. With appropriations. While there are efficiency
the other programs funded by USF becoming and fairness arguments for such a
more important in the era of COVID-19 and an change, there is a fear that a future
economy of remote everything, USF is facing Congress could simply stop funding the
increasing demands. There are several program, either as a conscious choice, or
options that have been proposed to address due to a political stalemate on unrelated
the issue. These include: budget issues.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 42
• Use a combination of funding sources. obligations, in exchange for obtaining a local
These would include direct Congressional monopoly to provide telephone service.
appropriations, special appropriations,
such as proceeds from a spectrum The ETC requirement has been criticized as
auction, and gradually changing the outdated, excluded many providers who are
current contribution factor base to otherwise qualified to deploy infrastructure
something more sustainable in light of but who cannot meet the technical definition
market trends. of an ETC, potentially increasing costs and
lowering performance for consumers. Critics
3.8.2. ELIGIBILITY TO RECEIVE FUNDING. of the ETC requirement note that as part of the
process of awarding funding, the FCC already
Providing government funding, whether for a conducts an extensive review of the
network to address the availability gap, or to provider’s “long-form” application, which
subsidize broadband service for a low- ensures the provider is technically and
income person to close the affordability gap, financially capable of fulfilling all relevant
raises the policy question of who should be funding obligations.
eligible to receive the funds. At first blush, it
might appear that the same criteria could be Further, those accepting funding are legally
used to determine both who should qualify for bound by the provision that the funds may be
infrastructure support and for the provision of “used … only for the provision, maintenance,
subsidized service to low-income and upgrading of facilities and services for
households. There is, however, a big which the support is intended” (see 47 C.F.R.
difference between the two. § 54.314) and are obligated to provide service
(subject to milestones) of a specified
First, deployment funding carries an performance level, for a specific number of
execution risk that the project may not be years, to the locations for which funding is
completed, while the low-income subsidy only awarded. Assuming a robust audit and/or
goes to firms already offering a qualified oversight process, failure to meet these
service. Second, deployment funding creates obligations will result in penalties. In that light,
a network that likely will not be subject to the ETC designation or ongoing oversight by
significant competition, while the low-income states may be redundant, though others
subsidy is likely to be used in markets where argue that having multiple regulators provides
there are several firms competing for the additional assurance that companies are
consumer. We will address the low-income complying with the rules.
subsidy requirements in Chapter Five, but
here we address the requirements for network As a middle ground, relevant ETC
providers to receive support for infrastructure requirements could be incorporated into the
deployment. FCC’s long-form review process, making it
possible to eliminate a separate ETC
Currently, service providers seeking USF requirement. In particular, a service provider
support for infrastructure deployments must seeking FCC funding could be required to
be certified as Eligible Telecommunications certify to the FCC:
Carriers (ETC), a designation that essentially
limits funding to regulated, facilities-based • Compliance with applicable service
telephone service providers. Under current requirements.
law, providers obtain ETC designation from
their state, or from the FCC in cases where the • Safeguards to facilitate continuing
state lacks legal authority over the provider. operations during emergencies, including
Governing bodies must certify annually that back-up power sources, the ability to
allocated funding is being used as granted by reroute traffic around damaged facilities,
ETCs within their jurisdiction. and being able to manage traffic spikes
during emergencies.
The primary justification for the ETC
requirement is that government funding
should not go to operators who do not meet • Compliance with applicable FCC
the kind of requirements that historically consumer protection and service quality
applied to common carrier telephone standards.
companies, including public interest
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 43
• Compliance with any specific Phase I of the renamed Rural Digital
requirements regarding the terms and Opportunity Fund (RDOF) in late 2020, which
conditions of broadband service will provide funding over a ten-year period.
supported by the government funding. Nearly 400 entities qualified to bid in the
auction, including large and small incumbent
telephone companies, competitive fiber
• Compliance with requirements that it has providers, cable operators, electric
advertised the availability of the services cooperatives, fixed wireless providers, three
and the charges for those services using satellite companies, and consortia. Like the
media of general distribution, as required Connect America Fund Phase II auction, the
by the FCC. RDOF auction was a multi-round, reverse,
descending clock auction with bidders
Carriers’ existing ETC designations and competing nationwide, with some local
obligations – particularly legacy designations competition among bidders offering a lower
and obligations – should also automatically price.
sunset once their funds terminate to avoid
imposing costly and discriminatory Bidders in the RDOF auction could offer
obligations and burdens on providers. Such service in one of four speed tiers, with either
legacy obligations can effectively limit high or low latency. The speed tiers were 25/3
budgets that could otherwise support the Mbps, 50/5 Mbps, 100/20 Mbps, and 1
deployment and maintenance of broadband Gigabyte/500 Mbps. By design, bidders in all
services. performance tiers competed against one
another, at least in the initial rounds, with a
3.8.3. AUCTION DESIGN AND RULES. preference built into the auction design for
faster service and lower latency. The rules
In the last decade, the FCC drew on its long included a complicated system of “weights,”
history of spectrum auctions to design rules which effectively reduced the amount of
and procedures to award funding to close the support provided for slower speed and/or
availability gap through competitive auctions. higher latency service.
In 2011, the FCC first adopted the strategy of
awarding funding on a competitive basis, Only census blocks that were unserved
after an initial period during which incumbent according to the FCC’s 2019 broadband
telephone providers would be offered a set availability data by 25/3 Mbps fixed terrestrial
amount of money to make relatively modest broadband were eligible for bidding. Eligible
network upgrades. In areas where the areas also had to be deemed “high cost,”
incumbent turned down that initial offer, meaning the estimated cost to serve was
among others, the agency planned to above a threshold that assumed a set level of
accelerate competitive auctions. The FCC cost would be covered by end user revenues.
then finalized rules to implement this strategy The maximum level of funding available for
for the Connect America Fund. any given area and reserve prices were
based on the estimated cost to deploy fiber in
The FCC conducted the Connect America the area. Bids represented a percentage of
Fund Phase II auction in 2018, with winning the reserve price, with the weights reducing
bidders to be awarded approximately $1.48 the effective amount of subsidy for individual
billion over a ten-year term, based on bidders.
commitments to cover about 750,000
unserved homes and small businesses, or Ultimately, over 180 entities placed winning
about 1.875 million people. That auction bids for $9.2 billion of the $16 billion budgeted
focused on areas where incumbents had for Phase I. Collectively, winning bids
turned down the initial offer, as well as those promised service to over 5.2 million homes
areas of the country that the FCC believed and small businesses (roughly 13 million
would require the highest subsidy. people), which covered more than 99% of the
locations in the auction. More than 85% of the
The Connect America Fund program’s 6-year locations received winning bids at the highest
initial support period was scheduled to end in speed tier, and virtually all of the remaining
December 2020, but carriers could elect to locations received winning bid that committed
receive an optional 7th year of transitional to deliver 100/20 Mbps.
funding. The FCC then held an auction for
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 44
Winning bidders now must undergo a more • What has COVID-19 taught the United
thorough review of their financial and States about broadband usage and how
technical qualifications, and meet certain that should affect the threshold standard
other requirements, before they receive for what the FCC considers the definition
funding. In January 2021, a bi-partisan group of broadband? While we do not express a
of 157 members of Congress asked the FCC specific recommendation in this plan for
to thoroughly vet winning bidders to ensure what the definition should be, we believe
that they can deliver the broadband service the evidence is highly likely to
they have promised to unserved consumers. demonstrate that the current definition is
too low. Since the FCC last upgraded the
For the Connect America Fund Phase II definition in 2015, broadband usage has
auction, the first group of winning bidders significantly increased and the COVID
were authorized six months after conclusion crisis accelerated those usage trends.
of the auction, with other bidders authorized
on a rolling basis over the following two years. • What do technology and market trends
Once authorized, RDOF winning bidders have indicate about future broadband usage?
six years to complete their deployments, with
interim milestones beginning at the end of the
third year. • What is the level of broadband service
necessary today to utilize essential
The FCC currently plans to hold a second services, such as education, health care
RDOF auction, RDOF Phase II, to address and workforce development today? How
partially served areas and those areas for might requirements change going
which there was no winning bid in RDOF forward?
Phase I. The FCC said that it would only hold
the Phase II auction after it improved its • In light of those findings, what is the level
broadband availability data and maps. In of broadband service below which an
December 2020, the FCC announced that area should be considered unserved by
funding not allocated in the RDOF Phase I broadband?
auction would be allocated to the RDOF
Phase II auction, creating a budget of up to • In light of those findings, what is the
$11.2 billion. minimum level of broadband service the
government should require in funding
3.9. POLICY OPTIONS AND efforts to bring availability to an unserved
area?
RECOMMENDATIONS
In completing this analysis, the FCC should
While we are generally supportive of several look for guidance to Section 254 of the
current and proposed efforts to close the Communications Act, which defines the
availability gap, there are additional policy principles of Universal Service the FCC is
considerations that should be considered in directed to implement. That section states
the interest of achieving digital equity and that “consumers in all regions of the
inclusion. Nation…should have access to”
communications services “that are
3.9.1. THE FCC SHOULD CONDUCT AN reasonably comparable to those services
EXPEDITED PROCEEDING TO DETERMINE provided in urban areas and that are available
CRITICAL BENCHMARKS FOR at rates that are reasonably comparable to
BROADBAND. rates charged for similar services in urban
areas.”
As noted above, the FCC’s determination of
service levels that constitute Advanced “Reasonably comparable” does not
Telecommunications Capability (ATC) necessarily mean identical, but the FCC
profoundly affect the determination of which should choose a level of service below which
areas are deemed “unserved,” and, it cannot be fairly said that consumers are
consequently, how limited funds are allocated receiving reasonably comparable service.
to help close the availability gap. The FCC Section 254 also direct the FCC, in
should commence an expedited proceeding establishing the “evolving level” of service
to determine: that constitutes universal service, to consider,
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 45
among other factors, “the extent to which” NEW APPROPRIATIONS IN A MANNER
retail services have “through the operation of CONSISTENT WITH THIS PLAN.
market choices by customers, been
subscribed to by a substantial majority of As noted above, Congress appropriated
residential customers.” funds in the America Rescue Act of 2021
directly to States, territories and tribal entities,
In establishing and revising the level of as well as to local governments and counties
broadband service that the government that can be used for broadband
should fund to support an unserved area, the infrastructure. Congress also allocated funds
FCC should also seek to balance the to the Department of Treasury to distribute to
objectives of both Sections 254 and Section the states funds that appear to be specifically
706 of the Telecommunications Act of 1996. designated for broadband infrastructure. We
As noted above, Section 254 promotes the recommend that the funds be used in a
concept of “reasonably comparable service,” manner consistent with this plan, including,
and directs the FCC to define universal but not limited, to the following:
service in part with reference to retail services
that have been subscribed to by a substantial • The priority for funding should be to serve
majority of residential consumers. unserved areas, according to an
upgraded definition of what constitutes
Under Section 706, Congress directs the FCC broadband, with further prioritization of
to act to “encourage the deployment” of ATC areas that were unserved under the 25
to “all Americans” on “a reasonable and timely Mbps/3 Mbps definition of broadband.
basis.” Congress defines ATC as “with We note that there are a number of areas
regard to any transmission media or where private enterprises already have
technology, as high-speed, switched, publicly announced plans to deploy
broadband telecommunications capability gigabit capable fiber networks. While
that enables users to originate and receive such areas might currently meet the new
high-quality voice, data, graphics, and video definition of unserved, the priority should
telecommunications using any technology.” remain funding in areas where, but for the
government funding, Qualifying Networks
In assessing a forward looking element into would not be built.
the service levels that constitute ATC for
purposes of infrastructure funding support, • The minimum service level required of
the FCC should include provisions for excess awardees should be consistent with an
capacity that would reasonably updated definition of Qualifying Networks;
accommodate predicted growth in use and
application requirements over the next 10
years, with “excess capacity” and • The funds should be awarded through a
“application requirements,” to be defined by competitive process with guardrails to
the FCC following analysis of user ensure that an entity seeking funding has
requirements for current and emerging the actual technical, operational, and
applications and their technical and utilization financial resources necessary to meet its
characteristics. In defining these elements, commitments;
the FCC should place particular emphasis on
service levels necessary to utilize essential • Eligibility to compete for the funds should
services in education, health care and be consistent with the principles
workforce development, as detailed in discussed in this Chapter;
succeeding chapters.
• The FCC and NTIA should assist the
Through this and related proceedings, the Department of Treasury, as well as all the
FCC should then establish a set of minimum different government entities eligible to
standards for deployments that qualify for receive funds for broadband
government funds, referred to herein as infrastructure projects, with issues related
“Qualifying Networks.” to mapping, definitions, and structuring
competitive processes.
3.9.2. THE DEPARTMENT OF TREASURY
AND THE STATES SHOULD UTILIZE THE 3.9.3 THE FCC SHOULD IMPLEMENT THE
BROADBAND DATA ACT.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 46
In December 2020, Congress appropriated interested in obtaining federal assistance to
funding for the FCC to implement the deploy networks, current Department of
Broadband Data. The FCC should produce Transportation policy that limits access to
maps of fixed terrestrial broadband service federal ROW to certified utilities and
availability consistent with the Act by early communications companies adds
2022. While taking care not to harm any unnecessary costs for non-traditional
privacy rights or confidential business providers who wish to lay fiber or other
information, the mapping effort should make conduits. The Department of Transportation
greater use of existing data private should create a national policy that (1)
enterprises already have and, where provides streamlined access to federal ROW
appropriate, use crowdsourcing techniques (e.g., Interstate highway system) for non-
that provide more accurate and granular utilities or non-certificated operators; (2)
information about broadband availability than simplifies and improves transparency around
the FCC currently has. Further, in light of the the permitting process; and (3) creates one
Congressional appropriations to states and point of contact for all approvals required to
other government jurisdictions for broadband deploy communications infrastructure.
projects, the FCC should seek to accelerate
its mapping to assist those governments with 3.9.6. CONGRESS SHOULD PASS
their own decision making. While mapping is LEGISLATION AND APPROPRIATE FUNDS
underway, at the same time, the FCC should TO BE DISTRIBUTED BY THE FCC OR
complete the necessary proceedings to OTHER GOVERNMENT ENTITIES
adopt rules and procedures for the next THROUGH A SERIES OF COMPETITIVE
auction. Upon completion of the mapping, PROCESSES TO CLOSE THE AVAILABILITY
the FCC should release an updated map of GAP.
areas eligible for funding, solicit applications,
and hold an auction to deploy broadband We believe the best way to close the
based on the findings of the updated maps. availability gap is with a significant one-time
appropriation. The following guidelines
3.9.4. CONGRESS SHOULD ELIMINATE should be included:
THE ETC REQUIREMENT AND SIMILAR
REQUIREMENTS THAT SUPPRESS 1. The FCC should allocate the funds
SUPPLY. through multiple competitive processes
as described below.
Congress should instruct the FCC to eliminate
the requirement that infrastructure funding
recipients be designated as ETCs, and 2. Any appropriated funds left over after all
automatically relinquish the designation for auctions are completed should be
existing ETCs in the serving area once their redirected to Universal Service programs
funding ends. Congress should further direct aimed at closing the adoption and
the FCC to incorporate those elements of the affordability gaps, as discussed in
existing ETC designation process that remain Chapters 4 and 5. Congress should
relevant into its applicant review process, as consider the appropriation as a unified
discussed in Section 3.8.2, and authorize the effort to achieve digital equity and
FCC to consult with appropriate state and inclusion. In a well-designed reverse
local officials, such as state broadband auction, market forces will encourage
offices familiar with conditions on the ground, efficiency, so providing a cushion will not
so that the FCC is able to develop meaningful lead to over-expenditures. That cushion,
audit and oversight capabilities over funding however, should be spent on other
recipients to ensure they perform as programs to address digital equity and
expected. inclusion and in particular, to relieve
pressure on the Universal Service Fund.
3.9.5. THE DEPARTMENT OF
TRANSPORTATION SHOULD STREAMLINE 3. Congress should require that the FCC
ITS PROCESS FOR GRANTING ACCESS TO report to Congress on the extent to which
FEDERAL RIGHTS OF WAY (ROW). it is appropriate to rely on LEOs, next
generation VDSL, fixed and/or mobile
In the same way that the ETC requirement has cellular, or other alternative technologies
suppressed the supply of enterprises to completely close the availability gap, or
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 47
if other technologies will be required to • In 2022, the FCC should hold a reverse
meet the needs of the most remote auction designed to assure deployment of
premises. That report should take into a Qualifying Network to 98% of premises
account what the FCC learns from the in the United States. The 98% goal is
performance of alternate technologies appropriate as it is the point at which the
funded to date. cost curve for connecting each additional
premise begins to rise significantly.
3.9.7. THE FCC SHOULD HOLD SEVERAL
REVERSE AUCTIONS. • In 2023, the FCC should examine the
performance of new delivery
The FCC should hold multiple reverse technologies, including but not limited to,
auctions. There are several reasons why this low earth orbiting satellites and 5G fixed
is the preferable approach: and mobile cellular networks, and develop
a plan to provide the final 2% of premises
• First, it would allow the FCC to gain real- in America with a Qualifying Network. To
world experience with the performance of the extent that plan requires additional
the networks it has financed to date, funding from Congress, the FCC should
informing its determination of the service request, and Congress should
levels alternative technologies are appropriate, such funding.
capable of delivering.
• In 2024, the FCC should hold a reverse
• Second, it would provide the agency with auction designed to assure deployment of
market insight into the performance of 5G a Qualifying Network to the final 2% of
fixed and mobile networks, as well as the premises.
potential of other emerging technologies,
such as low earth orbiting satellites. • The FCC should continually upgrade its
availability maps, as noted above, to
• Third, a series of auctions will provide a determine with greater accuracy which
second chance for communities to areas remain unserved by a Qualifying
consider alternatives in the event there is Network.
no winning bidder for their area.
Unserved communities that are desperate 3.9.8. THE FCC SHOULD ADJUST ITS
for available service are at different stages PROCEDURES FOR QUALIFYING TO
of organizing themselves to solve the PARTICIPATE IN REVERSE AUCTIONS.
problem. For some, the answer may be to
work more closely with existing or nearby We agree with bi-partisan criticism of the
service providers to develop a more FCC’s handling of the recent RDOF Phase I
attractive business proposition to auction. To prevent the risk of having winning
encourage entry. For others, it may be bidders who are likely to default on their
necessary to explore alternative commitments, we recommend the FCC adopt
approaches, including ways to leverage two additional principles in refining the its
multiple sources of funding from federal, requirements for qualification in the next
state, and local options. auction.
The FCC should maximize the reach of the • The FCC should adopt stronger guardrails
Congressional appropriation by considering for the “short form” review process to
an auction design that awards funding based ensure that an entity seeking to bid has
on dollar-per-location basis, rather than a bid- the actual technical, operational, and
to-reserve price ratio. It should prioritize financial resources necessary to meet its
those areas that require the least amount of commitments. In the most recent RDOF
funding per home. auction, the FCC allowed entities to bid
anywhere in the nation, subject only to a
To close the availability gap as quickly as limitation that their bids not exceed the
possible, the FCC should adopt the following nationwide auction budget. The FCC used
schedule: a case-by-case approach to assess the
qualifications of applicants to bid. The
short-form process – in which applicants
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 48
seek to qualify to bid in specific states at small, targeted grants on an expedited basis
specific performance tier(s) – should be for Internet access and adoption programs.
modified to include more bright-line rules The goal should be deployment of high-
designed to ensure the applicant can to capacity infrastructure on Tribal lands that
realistically meet the selected enables users to originate and receive high-
performance tier in the desired area(s) of quality voice, data, graphics, and video
interest. For example, the FCC could telecommunications using any technology.
establish that no bidder is eligible to bid
on more than a specified number of As part of this effort, Congress should also
locations or for more than a given dollar provide ongoing funding for federal facilities
amount of support, absent demonstration serving Tribal lands to upgrade and maintain
of operational history meeting a specific their broadband infrastructure. Consistent
threshold. Absent that operational history, with the widely held view that government
the short-form applicant could be required entities actively seek out and leverage “dig
to demonstrate that project financing has once” coordination opportunities in all areas
been secured up to a set dollar amount, of the country, all federal agencies that
contingent on winning a specified level of upgrade network connectivity on Tribal lands
support. should coordinate such upgrades with Tribal
governments and the Tribal Broadband Fund
• The FCC should not allow enterprises to grant-making process, exploiting
bid on the basis of unproven technology. opportunities for joint trenching, laying of
In the most recent RDOF auction, the FCC conduit, or construction of additional fiber
qualified companies to bid that were not optic facilities. As part of that effort, the FCC,
existing broadband providers and in consultation with relevant stakeholders,
proposed to use technologies without a should develop a set of best practices that
proven track record of being expedite review when infrastructure
commercially offered in the marketplace deployment utilizes existing rights of way,
at required RDOF service levels. In future such as highways, utilities, and rail. In
auctions, the FCC should not allow addition, we note that the two appropriations
applicants to bid on selected mentioned above in the American Rescue Act
performance tiers in the absence of real- of 2021 provide funding to Tribal governments
world market place experience as an that can be used for broadband
existing broadband provider or with those infrastructure. The fund we recommend here
technologies in a variety of relevant should be designed in light of the needs after
markets. At a minimum, there should be an evaluation of how the Rescue Act funds
some limits on the ability to bid using were utilized.
technologies that lack operational
experience. 3.9.9.2. Congress should amend the
Communications Act to provide discretion to
3.9.9. THE FCC AND CONGRESS SHOULD the FCC to allow anchor institutions on Tribal
INSTITUTE POLICIES TO CONNECT lands to share broadband network capacity
TRIBAL LANDS. that is funded by the E-rate or the Rural
Health Care program with other community
3.9.9.1. Congress should establish a Tribal institutions designated by Tribal
Broadband Fund to support sustainable governments.
broadband deployment and adoption in
Tribal lands. In recognition of the unique challenges facing
Tribal communities, Congress should amend
Grants from a new Tribal Broadband Fund the Communications Act to provide discretion
would be used for a variety of purposes, to the FCC to define circumstances in which
including bringing high-capacity connectivity schools, libraries and health care providers
to Tribal headquarters and other anchor that receive funding from the E-rate or Rural
institutions, as well as support for deployment Health Care programs may share broadband
planning, infrastructure buildout, feasibility network access and capacity that is funded
studies, technical assistance, business plan by the E-rate or the Rural Health Care
development and implementation, digital program with other community institutions
literacy, and outreach. In addition, a portion designated by Tribal governments.
of the fund should be allocated to provide
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 49
3.9.9.3. Congress and the FCC should condition of spectrum auctions over these
develop policies that allow Tribes significant lands.
influence over the use of spectrum over their
lands. 3.9.10. IMPROVE ACCESS TO
INFORMATION ABOUT FEDERAL AND
Congress and the FCC should work together STATE BROADBAND PROGRAMS AND
to allow Tribal communities to have an IMPROVE THE APPLICATION PROCESS.
increased ability to utilize spectrum over their
lands. This should be based on three As noted above, according to the NTIA’s
principles: Broadband Funding Guide, there are 59
direct and indirect federal programs, located
• Require Tribal consultation and approval in more than a dozen federal agencies, that
regarding the use of spectrum over their support broadband deployment efforts. In
lands. Because of the way the FCC has addition, there are several programs that have
allocated spectrum, wireless companies either been initiated or expanded through
often license the spectrum that lies above COVID-19 relief legislation that also provide
Tribal lands, yet do not deploy networks in broadband assistance.
those areas, allocating their capital to
build in more densely populated areas. The multitude of these programs raises
Native Tribes were promised a level of questions of whether they are being
sovereignty over their lands, and given the effectively used. Such an analysis is beyond
importance of spectrum and wireless the scope of this effort. But there are obvious
communications, they should have the problems with current efforts that could be
right to control that spectrum and deploy easily addressed and which, if addressed,
it in ways that best suits their needs. would improve broadband access.
Congress should end the FCC’s ability to
license Tribal spectrum resources without 3.9.10.1. Provide a search engine that
Tribal consultation. enables stakeholders to effectively find the
program that serves their needs.
• Require a Tribal Priority Filing Window for
every spectrum auction. To the extent that NTIA currently has a search tool, but it only
there are frequencies and uses for which allows one to search for programs to the
automatic Tribal control is not practical, extent that the parties know the specific
the FCC should create a Tribal Priority program they are looking for. It would be far
Filing Window for licenses over Tribal better if the search engine allowed the party
lands in advance of every spectrum doing the search to enter certain relevant
auction, granting Tribes the right to criteria, including the nature of the recipient
license the spectrum on an exclusive or (schools, libraries, non-profits, local
priority basis. governments, hospitals, etc.), the purpose of
the funding (planning, capital expense,
adoption, training, etc.), the location of the
• Institute a build it or lose it process for recipient (rural, exurban, suburban, metro as
future licensees of Tribal spectrum. well as by zip code, as some programs, such
Because of earlier allocation and licensing as the Appalachian Regional Council, only
of spectrum, private entities hold licenses service specific regions), and then the search
for significant portions of spectrum over engine would identify relevant programs. In
Tribal lands. Often, the economics of other words, the search engine should be
serving these lands licensees from designed to do the searching, rather than
building out networks. As noted above, forcing the person doing the inquiry to review
Congress should authorize the FCC to all 59 programs to determine whether each
conduct a reverse auction or otherwise program’s mission and eligibility criteria fit
determine and provide the support their situation.
necessary to incent existing spectrum
holders to build out their networks over 3.9.10.2. Require agencies to update their
Tribal lands. For future spectrum information.
auctions, the FCC could, with advance
notice to all potential bidders, make build-
out on Tribal lands a clear and explicit A quick review of the information makes clear
that many entries are out of date. There
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 50
should be a requirement for agencies to
periodically update the information and to do
so immediately when there is a significant
event, such as Congressional action
allocating new funds, that affects the nature of
their programs.
3.9.10.3. For programs other than the those
supported by the Universal Service Fund,
create a common application that enables
those applying for funding from more than
one program to save time and effort on the
application process.
The FCC process is unique in a number of
ways but there is significant overlap between
many of the other federal programs. NTIA
should review the applications for those
programs and develop a common application
so that the applicant can fill out one, instead
of multiple forms, and apply for multiple
programs simultaneously. Further, NTIA
should standardize, to the extent possible, the
application process to ease the
administrative burden on applicants. As an
illustration, the Department of Education has
an online Financial Aid Form application,
known as the FAFSA, that is common to all
eligible institutions.
3.9.10.4. The website should be designed
so that states can also add their broadband
related programs to the data base.
Several states have programs that subsidize
broadband deployments. To assist
communities seeking assistance, it would be
useful to enable states to add links to their
programs, so that potential providers can
assess the full menu of available support.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 51
Chapter 4.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
CLOSING THE
BROADBAND
ADOPTION GAP
4.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
The COVID-19 pandemic has wrenched much of our day-to-day life, learning, work, and
socializing from the familiar world of the physical to digital equivalents many users had
never heard of only a few months ago. One pernicious side-effect of the crisis has been
to expose both the extent and the growing cost of persistent digital inequities. It is hard
to live your life online if you do not have or know how to use a computer, and don’t
subscribe to a broadband service that connects it to the rest of the world.
The previous chapter reviewed gaps in education levels, older adults, Black
broadband availability and the mechanisms Americans, Latinxs, and Native Americans.
that would solve them once and for all. But
solely as a function of the number of people Extensive public and private surveys suggest
affected, the biggest divide remains that of that, since 2010, there are three principal
adoption. The Federal Communications causes of the adoption gap, broadly
Commission estimates that at the end of 2019, speaking: problems of affordability, digital
the number of Americans with no available readiness, and perceived relevance.
broadband service was less than 14.5 million,
though other sources suggest the number The first is obvious. Thirty-four million
may be as high as 40 million. Even at the Americans living below the poverty line
higher end of that range, however, the struggle with the most basic necessities of
number of Americans with available service life—rent, food, electricity and water, transit,
who do not subscribe to broadband is and basic communications. Adding the cost
significantly greater. This adoption gap of monthly broadband service makes
afflicts a wide range of people and adoption untenable, even as it becomes
geographies, but is most acute among low- increasingly clear that Internet service is more
income households, those with lower a necessity than a luxury. Issues of
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 53
affordability are discussed in the next doors to new forms of human creativity,
chapter. innovation, and interaction. In the reaction to
many unfortunate but undeniable negative
Digital readiness constitutes a more complex side effects of the digital age, we may forget
and interconnected set of issues. For many, just how much the technology has and can
including some who can and some who continue to improve the quality of life,
cannot afford a retail broadband service, especially for the most disadvantaged
adoption is complicated by a lack of populations.
computing equipment and training. This
includes the ability to use a computer or tablet The pandemic, too, has brought that truth into
device, to access and use specific services stark focus. With the attention of both
on the Internet, and to set up and maintain policymakers and their constituents acutely
connectivity equipment, including modems, fixed on the importance and promise of digital
routers, and home Wi-Fi networks. It also equity and inclusion, the stars have aligned as
includes having the training necessary to never before for bold action to close the
overcome the fears, many of them justified, of adoption gap. We must seize it.
personal and financial security while using
online services.
4.2. VISION
Longitudinal surveys from both the NTIA and
Pew Internet Research have consistently The Communications Act of 1934 and the
shown that a significant obstacle to Telecommunications Act of 1996 both
broadband adoption is the belief, well- articulate a vision for communications policy
founded or otherwise, that the Internet is not that has taken on renewed importance today:
“relevant” to the lives of many non-adopters. universal and affordable communications
But on the problem of relevance, we think the services that are widely available.
pandemic has changed the environment,
perhaps permanently. For now, and perhaps Those acts were written in an era in which
well into the future, education at all levels will voice communications was dominant. Today,
take place online. Health care, crucial for all of course, voice is only a small part of the
Americans but especially for poorer and older communication ecosystem. That, too, was a
residents and those living in remote locations, shift contemplated by Congress. As the 1996
has suddenly and irreversibly moved to virtual Act noted “Universal service is an evolving
platforms, with doctor visits, prescriptions, level of telecommunications services that the
and basic wellness services being delivered Commission shall establish periodically under
largely without physical interaction. this section, taking into account advances in
Employment opportunities—everything from telecommunications and information
job training to applying for work and, in many technologies and services.” The Act also says
cases, performing one’s job—require that the definition of universal service should
broadband. Government services and civic be functional, based on what is essential to
engagement are also increasingly more easily education, health, and public safety, as well
and effectively accessed online, not to as whether a “substantial majority” of the
mention social engagement, entertainment, public has subscribed to certain
shopping, news, and information. Any telecommunications services.
remaining doubts about the relevance of
digital life, and the importance of digital equity Our vision, therefore, is to reach levels of
and inclusion, have been largely erased. adoption among low-income households, less
educated adults, older Americans, Black
But the COVID-19 pandemic has not so much Americans, Latinxs, and Native Americans,
created these new realities as it has and other groups who suffer from persistent
accelerated paradigm shifts in daily life that digital inequity and exclusion, that equals
were already well underway. The computer is adoption rates seen today among those for
a source of continual disruption across nearly whom affordability and digital readiness are
all industries and activities precisely because not barriers.
it offers the promise, if used wisely, of lowering
a remarkable range of costs, of improving
efficiency and capacity, of equalizing quality
of service and opportunity, and of opening
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 54
4.3. GOALS problems noted above: affordability, digital
readiness, and perceived relevance.
Ensuring that today’s non-adopters have the
By the end of 2023, all K-12 students should economic means to subscribe to broadband
be active users of broadband services at will erase a major obstacle; untangling and
home that enables them to attend virtual solving the many elements of digital readiness
classes and complete their homework. They ensures that the newly connected can reap
should also have devices capable of the same benefits of digital technology as
facilitating all learning activities. long-time users, and will likely address
remaining questions of relevancy.
By the end of 2023, all low-income persons on
government health plans should be active A few features of adoption are worth
users of broadband service in their residence highlighting. Together, fixed terrestrial
that enables them to access the full range of broadband and large-screen computers or
telehealth services. tablets allow users to carry out most online
tasks with little or no constraints. But there is
By the end of 2023, all persons who become also the question of what kind of data
unemployed should be active users of package is sufficient to enable a household to
broadband service in their residence that achieve that full participation in digital life we
enables them to engage in job training, job discussed in Chapter 1. A 2018 study on low-
searching and applying for a job. income households who use Wi-Fi hotspots
for schoolwork shows that they consume 60
By the end of 2021, the Federal Government gigabits of data per month—above the 50 GB
should establish an Office of Digital Equity monthly threshold that many mobile carriers
(discussed further below in Section 4.5.1) with have before slowing access speeds for non-
a mandate to coordinate across agencies and unlimited data plans. Wireline broadband
initiatives to increase home broadband plans generally have either no limits or limits
adoption, and otherwise advocate for policies of 1,024 GB per month– well above the
designed to achieve digital equity and average data usage of 344 GB per month they
inclusion. experienced at the end of 2019. Since the
pandemic, some mobile data plans have
By the end of 2023, all Americans should have eased constraints on data caps, including
access to programs and services that enable within the context of “single payer”
persons to be digitally ready. agreements between localities and service
providers. These solutions are neither
generally available nor guaranteed to be
4.4. THE CURRENT SITUATION: permanent but, as discussed later, next
UNDERSTANDING DIGITAL generation cellular and other wireless
services may at some point change the
ADOPTION GAPS analysis. In addition, we cannot lose sight of
the fact that mobile network wireless hotspots
4.4.1. DEFINING BROADBAND ADOPTION. offer unique advantages, including ease of
set-up and pack-and-go internet for students
We define “broadband adoption” to mean with multiple home locations.
subscribing to an available Internet access
service, where an individual or family lives, We also believe that non-smartphone devices
that is always available, offers full access to are an important element of adoption. Though
all parts of the Internet, is secure, and with widely adopted and constantly improving
speed, data, latency and other technical their functional abilities, smartphones today
characteristics sufficient to use essential are not a full cure for problems of digital equity
applications such as, but not limited to, and inclusion. As the pandemic unfolded and
education, health care, and employment, citizens sought unemployment benefits, for
along with the necessary equipment and example, 86% of state unemployment
training to benefit from their full potential. websites failed tests for “mobile friendliness.”
That definition suggests the need for 4.4.2. CURRENT DATA.
policymakers to devise, enact, and fund
solutions to address the persistent adoption
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 55
In chapter 3 we analyzed the state of broadband at home but currently do not. If
broadband deployment and relied largely on between 80% and 90% of all households have
FCC data, which, as discussed, has access to at least one available fixed
significant flaws but still provides some insight terrestrial service, however, then between 29
into the availability gap. For this chapter, we to 32 million households, or approximately 69
are focused on understanding adoption gaps to 78 million people, do not subscribe to
across socio-economic lines. For these broadband at home for reasons other than
purposes we believe the American network availability.
Community Survey offers the best information
to analyze these gaps and we explain the 4.4.2.1. Socio-economic factors and
choice to emphasize wireline connections geography.
below.
According to 2019 ACS data, six
According to the American Community demographic characteristics correlated
Survey’s analysis of 2019 census data, 70.8% strongly to whether or not a household adopts
of U.S. households have adopted broadband broadband:6
at home using a wired service—using either
cable, fiber, or DSL. This is captured in the Income. One of the most highly correlated
ACS question that asks whether “you or any variables in adoption of broadband at home is
member of this household have access to the household income. For households with
Internet using a … broadband (high speed) annual incomes of $50,000 or less, 54.1%
Internet service such as cable, fiber optic, or have adopted broadband at home, compared
DSL service installed in this household?” It is to households with annual incomes
worth noting that a “yes” answer to this exceeding $75,000, where 84.3% have
question does not necessarily mean that the adopted broadband at home. Non-adopting
respondent has service that meets the FCC’s U.S. households with annual incomes below
current definition of ATC, which requires $50,000 (representing 42% of all U.S.
speeds of 25 Mbps download and 3 Mbps households), equate to 21.9 million
upload. DSL, an older technology that some households, or approximately 59 million
providers are hoping to phase out, may not people. [FIGURE 1]
satisfy the FCC’s definition.
Age. Only 59.0% of individuals aged 65 and
The 2019 ACS figure of nearly 71% represents older have adopted broadband at home, with
an increase from 67.3% in 2016, when ACS a particularly sharp drop off for those older
first began to report on broadband adoption. than 74, where only 48.7% have adopted
ACS also reports on non-wired services, broadband at home. This leaves 21.6 million
finding in 2019 that, including cellular and older Americans without broadband at home,
satellite-based broadband services, adoption or 13.3 million households. [FIGURE 2]
levels reached 86.4%, an increase from
81.4% in 2016. In addition to the 70.8% of Households with school-age children. 77.3%
those who have wireline subscriptions, of households with children under the age of
cellular-only users make up nearly 12% of 18 have adopted broadband at home. This is
internet adopters, with satellite and other higher than the national average, reflecting in
broadband technologies making up the rest. part the relative youth of these households.
Some 16.9 million children under age 18 are
This means that as of the end of 2019, ACS estimated to live in households without
data suggest that nearly 36 million broadband at home—or approximately 8.4
households, or approximately 96 million million households.
people, were not subscribing to broadband at
home using a fixed terrestrial service Geography. Fewer rural Americans have
(henceforth “broadband at home”). As noted adopted broadband at home, in part, as
in Chapter 3, of course, the lack of an noted in Chapter 3, due to a lack of an
available service plays a significant role in available fixed terrestrial service. In non-
that finding. metropolitan areas, only 62.4% of households
have adopted broadband at home, compared
Incomplete network availability data make it to 72.3% for those living in metropolitan areas.
difficult to say with precision how many non- In 2019, 7 million households in non-metro
subscribing households could have areas had not adopted broadband at home.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 56
Given the concentration of population in metro 4.4.2.2. Other demographic groups of
areas however, there are far more urban special interest.
households who have not adopted
broadband at home—an estimated 29 to 32 Government services are increasingly
million households, or approximately 69 to 78 available and essential as Internet
million people, applications. But in many cases, those who
would most benefit from the timesaving and
Race and Ethnicity. Broadband adoption has convenience of e-government services have
historically been adopted at higher rates by not adopted broadband at home. As of 2018,
white Americans relative to Black Americans, adoption rates lagged behind the average
Latinxs, and Native American/Alaskan among beneficiaries of the most important
Natives. The 2018 ACS data show this trend government programs:
continuing. Compounding the problem,
adoption rates for Black American, Latinxs, Health insurance. For Americans using
and Native American/Alaskan Natives are Medicare as their health insurance, 57.9%
significantly lower even when controlling for have adopted broadband at home, a figure
household income, age, educational which tracks with the adoption rate for those
attainment, and other factors. [FIGURE 3] age 65 or older. 52.1% of Medicaid
Specifically, broadband at home has been beneficiaries have adopted broadband at
adopted in the following percentages: home. Military personnel and their
dependents with Tricare health insurance
• 82.2% of Asian Americans show higher rates of adoption of broadband
at home, at 74.4%. Veterans have adopted at
a lower rate, at 65.3%. [FIGURE 5]
• 72.2% of whites
Government benefits, including Supplemental
• 65.7% of Latinxs Security Income (SSI) and Supplemental
Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). These
• 61.8% of Black Americans benefit programs are available to households
whose gross incomes are no more than 130%
• 60.3% of Native Americans or Alaskan of the poverty level (for SNAP), while SSI
Natives. eligibility depends on age, income, and
disability status. For adults eligible for either
of these programs, only 52.5% have adopted
Educational attainment. Broadband adoption broadband at home.
also correlates strongly with higher levels of
educational attainment. Those with higher
levels of educational attainment may, for People with disabilities. Computers and many
example, have jobs that require digital skills, web-based interfaces are difficult if not
not to mention the income to afford impossible to use by people with certain
broadband at home. For those with high visual, movement, and learning disabilities.
school degrees or less, their jobs or income Adults with disabilities have low rates of
levels may contribute to lower levels of adoption, with 54.4% having broadband at
adoption for broadband at home. Each of the home.
three groups below make up about one-third
of the adult population. The data shows 4.4.2.3. Broadband in Urban America
[FIGURE 4]: —an analysis of cities
As noted in at home. As a result, much of the
• 54.4% of those with high school degrees attention and funding directed to closing the
or less have broadband at home. availability and adoption gaps in recent years
has been focused on rural America.
• 72.5% of those with some college
experience or an associate degree have But given the higher concentration of
broadband at home. population in urban areas, far larger numbers
of non-adopting households are located in
• 84.8% of those with college degrees or cities than in the more sparsely populated
more have broadband at home. areas of the country. For example, a recent
analysis of broadband adoption in Baltimore,
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 57
Maryland showed that 40% of residents had friends had one, even when controlling for
not adopted broadband at home as of 2018. demographic and socio-economic factors.
Among the poorest (those with annual
household income of $25,000 or less), 66% The following table shows broadband
had not adopted. And one in three Baltimore adoption at home in the 50 cities with the
City households did not have either a desktop lowest adoption rates, along with rates of
or laptop computer. poverty and residential segregation. The data
on residential segregation comes from the
One common denominator in these and other Diversity and Disparities project at Brown
examples is poverty. Urban areas with high University; a residential segregation figure of
rates of poverty have low rates of broadband 50 or more indicates high levels of residential
adoption. segregation. Figures on poverty use table
S1701 from the Census Bureau. The
There are also data that suggest lower Appendix presents data for 100 of the largest
adoption rates occur in neighborhoods that U.S. cities. For all 100 cities, the average
are more segregated. A possible explanation adoption rate for 2019 is 72.2%, and the
for that result pertains to network effects—or poverty rate for 2019 is 15.9%. The
how behavior by others in one’s social broadband adoption rate for all 100 cities is
networks influence behavior. The likelihood of 68.1% for 2016.
someone adopting broadband at home is
higher if nearby peers have already adopted. Table 1: 50 cities with lowest broadband
This dynamic first emerged for computer adoption at home
adoption generally in the late 1990s, when
research showed that people were more likely
to buy computers if a large share of their
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 58
Wireline Wireline White-Black White-
Poverty Hispanic Number of
City Broadband Broadband residential
2019 2016 2019 Rate segregation residential households
segregation
Birmingham, Alabama 52.4% 55.7% 25.2% 62.6 52.4 93,300
Detroit, Michigan 53.7% 42.7% 30.6% 59.2 59.4 267,139
Cleveland, Ohio 54.0% 50.8% 30.8% 69 37.5 171,632
Memphis, Tennessee 55.8% 50.1% 21.7% 67.9 54.5 254,423
Newark, New Jersey 58.6% 53.5% 25.2% 71.2 47.4 102,155
Rochester, New York 59.3% 56.5% 25.3% 51.6 54.1 87,679
Baltimore, Maryland 59.4% 58.4% 20.2% 68.9 45 242,694
Des Moines, Iowa 62.8% 64.0% 15.5% 36.5 34.4 91,045
New Orleans, Louisiana 63.0% 56.9% 23.2% 67.6 40.6 151,753
Stockton, California 63.0% 60.8% 15.4% 37.2 40.5 96,149
Knoxville, Tennessee 63.4% 63.3% 21.8% 47.8 25.9 83,492
Toledo, Ohio 63.9% 61.2% 25.2% 53.4 33.9 121,022
Glendale, Arizona 64.0% 65.1% 18.9% 39.1 48.1 81,065
Winston-Salem, North 64.5% 66.5% 19.7% 50.4 48.2 94,884
Carolina
Little Rock, Arkansas 65.2% 57.9% 12.3% 58.6 57.7 80,063
St. Louis, Missouri 65.6% 62.2% 19.1% 65.3 35.5 146,779
Indianapolis, Indiana 65.8% 59.2% 15.8% 62.3 18.8 340,639
Irving, Texas 65.9% 70.2% 10.3% 36.6 33.6 83,345
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 65.9% 57.9% 22.4% 70.1 60.7 232,176
Buffalo, New York 66.2% 57.8% 28.8% 65.9 43.4 109,163
Las Vegas, Nevada 66.6% 68.7% 14.9% 32.4 48.3 235,628
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 66.6% 64.0% 23.7% 66.9 38.1 82,097
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 66.7% 66.0% 15.8% 46.7 51.6 249,615
Dallas, Texas 66.8% 57.7% 17.5% 66.1 61.1 518,998
Louisville, Kentucky 66.9% 68.8% 15.4% 66 36.2 252,784
Fresno, California 67.1% 63.9% 23.2% 42 42.4 172,815
El Paso, Texas 67.3% 62.9% 18.6% 30.8 39.7 223,076
Tucson, Arizona 67.6% 66.4% 19.1% 25.6 47.2 217,993
Richmond, Virginia 67.7% 58.4% 18.9% 63.5 60.8 89,878
Jacksonville, Florida 67.9% 68.0% 14.1% 47.5 22.4 349,171
Lubbock, Texas 67.9% 68.2% 20.6% 47.2 39.5 99,104
Kansas City, Missouri 68.3% 64.4% 15.3% 62.2 47.1 209,768
Chicago, Illinois 68.3% 64.1% 16.4% 82.5 60.9 1,080,345
Tulsa, Oklahoma 68.4% 63.7% 18.6% 49.8 44 163,801
Norfolk, Virginia 68.5% 63.2% 17.9% 50.8 26.8 88,387
Houston, Texas 68.5% 61.8% 19.7% 68.6 60.4 876,504
Akron, Ohio 68.7% 56.4% 23.6% 48.6 31.1 83,821
San Antonio, Texas 68.8% 61.8% 16.8% 43.1 46.8 512,273
Albuquerque, New Mexico 69.1% 64.7% 16.0% 28.5 37.1 227,179
Phoenix, Arizona 69.6% 66.4% 15.6% 49.9 57.7 586,878
Wichita, Kansas 70.2% 65.1% 14.2% 49.3 38.6 153,454
Corpus Christi, Texas 70.4% 64.7% 17.2% 40.2 39.8 119,184
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 70.4% 60.6% 23.3% 73.4 62 619,505
New York, New York 71.3% 69.3% 16.0% 81.4 65.8 3,211,033
Salt Lake City, Utah 71.3% 66.8% 14.4% 40.5 55.4 81,839
Oakland, California 71.7% 69.9% 13.9% 51.9 66.9 168,413
Tacoma, Washington 71.9% 67.2% 12.6% 31.5 33.1 87,016
Bakersfield, California 72.0% 69.9% 14.6% 43.4 39.2 116,558
Greensboro, North Carolina 72.4% 60.6% 19.7% 56.6 49.2 118,046
St. Paul, Minnesota 72.5% 66.3% 15.9% 43.4 44.1 110,782
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 59
A striking pattern in Table 1 is the correlation Qualitative research shows that those
between poverty and broadband adoption at unwilling to pay anything for broadband may
home. For all 100 cities, there is a strong be well aware of its value; but they lack the
negative correlation of -0.79, which means ability to pay for service or the devices
that the higher a city’s poverty rate, the lower necessary to access it. Most discounted
its rate of broadband adoption at home. The service offerings aimed at non-adopters are
same is true for residential segregation. For $20 per month or less, with a couple of
White-Black segregation, the negative programs including Comcast’s Internet
correlation is -0.47; for White-Hispanic Essentials and Access from AT&T at $10 per
residential segregation, the figure is -0.32. Of month. From the public interest perspective,
course, there is a strong association between an important objective is to ensure that
poverty and residential segregation, but discount Internet offers are widely available,
multivariate analysis suggests that both that information about them is aggressively
variables have significant and negative disseminated, and that sign-up processes for
associations with lower rates of broadband potential users is not burdensome.
adoption at home.
Chapter 5 reviews the affordability problem in
Although poverty and residential segregation further detail and provides policy options for
rates play a role in explaining differences in addressing the challenge. But while
broadband adoption between different cities, affordability is a significant issue, it is not a
it is possible that public policy decisions can binary problem. That is, it is not a simple
make a difference. Evidence at the city level question of whether one can or cannot afford
is, at best, suggestive. Detroit, for example, home broadband service and the devices
has shown significant growth in broadband needed to access such service. There are
adoption at home since 2016, during which related financial issues, such as access to
time it has developed a digital inclusion plan credit. For example, one of the most
and allocated funding to support digital important service developments encouraging
inclusion programs. Philadelphia, despite new subscribers to mobile broadband
high levels of poverty and residential services was the introduction of pre-paid
segregation, has seen a 10-percentage point services, which mitigated credit issues
gain in broadband adoption at home since limiting the market of potential subscribers.
2016, likely attributable, in part, to the There are similar pre-paid options for
establishment of a public-private digital broadband at home, such as with Internet
inclusion alliance to promote digital literacy. Essentials which does not require a credit
By contrast, the City of Baltimore, before the check, but these prepaid programs have not
pandemic had no digital inclusion initiatives, had the impact that such options have had in
and Baltimore’s broadband adoption rates the mobile market. The situation is described
have changed very little since 2016. in more detail in Appendix 4A.
4.4.3. WHAT EXPLAINS GAPS IN HOME Digital Readiness. The second substantial
BROADBAND ADOPTION? constraint on broadband adoption at home is
often referred to as “digital readiness.” Digital
Three factors figure prominently in readiness is an evolving concept, generally
understanding the adoption gap: affordability, referring to a set of skills associated with using
digital readiness, and perceived lack of information and communications technology
relevance. (ICT) to find, evaluate, create, and
communicate information. It is the sum of the
Affordability. Analysis of national data on technical skills and cognitive skills people
broadband adoption at home shows that employ to use computers to retrieve
income is a highly significant predictor of information, interpret what they find, and
whether a household subscribes to service. judge the quality of that information. It also
For non-broadband subscribers, the includes the ability to communicate and
threshold for what constitutes “affordability” collaborate using the Internet, which, of
has no single answer. Research has shown course, requires access to devices.
that large portions of non-subscribers set their
preferred price at zero. This may reflect A lack of digital readiness reflects the
extreme poverty on their part, and/or a lack of uncertainty that new Internet users bring to
skills or interest in using the Internet. their online experience. One component of
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 60
digital readiness are the skills required to However, qualitative research finds that, when
access and use Internet services, including digging into survey responses that cite lack of
for example, how to operate a computer or relevance, many respondents cite cost of
upload a resume. Another component of service and insufficient digital skills as
digital readiness is trust, including confidence significant issues for them. Other surveys
that the information they provide and access reach different conclusions, finding cost is the
online is reliable. Concerns about the level of leading reason for non-adoption among 34%
misinformation and, in particular, applications of respondents, with “don’t need/not
that can use personal financial information in interested” cited by 22%.
problematic ways in today’s Internet and
social media environments, underscore the Whatever the precise magnitude of the
importance of information and media literacy problem, significant numbers of non-adopters
in digital readiness programs. may benefit from information demonstrating
the utility of being online. An unintended
Finally, there can be no digital readiness positive consequence of the pandemic may
without access to computers and other help address this. Online access, for
devices, and the ability to use them. A lack of example, can greatly facilitate finding out
digital readiness limits the abilities of those where to get the vaccine and signing up for a
new to the Internet to fully utilize online shot. The pandemic has also resulted in social
services. It may also affect some isolation for some people—particularly older
experienced users, who may struggle with adults—which makes the consequences of
new applications and services. not having online access more evident to
people. The significant levels of non-users
The prevalence of digital readiness issues is citing lack of relevance points to an
substantial. In the U.S., one-third of adults informational component addressing barriers.
have low levels of digital skills for emerging Addressing informational needs in the context
applications, such as the Internet of Things. of broadband adoption is something
As many as half of the population exhibit some addressed below as part of encouraging
level of reluctance to use online educational digital readiness.
resources, because they lack confidence on
how to use such applications. In health care, 4.5. CLOSING THE DIGITAL
inexperience with technology leaves more
than one-third of older adults unable to have READINESS GAP
video visits with their doctors during the
pandemic. In workforce preparedness, large The recommendations in this section will help
numbers of workers lack the digital skills non-adopting Americans develop basic
needed to perform many well-paying jobs that digital skills, lowering barriers to broadband
are in demand. adoption and encouraging full utilization.
A lack of overall digital readiness fuels strong We are not starting from a blank slate. In the
levels of demand for digital skills training, past several years, digital readiness initiatives
something that is unlikely to subside after the throughout the country offer templates for
pandemic. A 2017 Pew Research Center successful solutions to the adoption gap.
study, for example, found that 60% of all Examples include:
adults were interested in training on how to
use online resources to find trustworthy
information. Another 54% of all adults • The Community Technology Network,
expressed interest in training on how to better which was established in 2008 and which
use the Internet, computers, and has grown to serve the Bay Area in San
smartphones generally. Francisco and Central Texas.
Perceived lack of relevance. Some non- • Older Adults Technology Services (OATS)
adopters of broadband service may view the which, as its name suggests, address the
Internet as something that is not relevant to technology and digital skills needs of
their lives. Research findings vary on the older adults.
degree of this problem. The NTIA finds that
58% of non-adopters cite “don’t need” or “not • A number of local public libraries and
interested” as a reason they do not subscribe. community colleges, which have
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 61
spearheaded programs to provide their implement programs aimed at increasing
patrons digital skills training, often with an digital literacy in their communities
aim at job training and entrepreneurship.
• Establish or support existing local
• The National Science Foundation, which “hotlines” to answer digital literacy
has funded a "rec-to-tech" project in questions;
Baltimore and Pittsburgh, which uses city
recreation centers as sites to train young • Conduct research, if possible, with
people in digital skills that they can take to National Science Foundation Funding, on
the workforce. the effectiveness of digital equity
strategies, including:
4.5.1. ESTABLISH AN OFFICE OF DIGITAL
EQUITY.
• Identifying a threshold of affordability for
discount home broadband offers. This
Congress should establish an Office of Digital should take into account household
Equity to coordinate across federal agencies expenditures for other necessities
and initiatives to increase adoption of including (but not limited to) rent, food,
broadband at home, and to advocate for utilities, and medical care, and;
policies designed to achieve digital equity
and inclusion. As its principal role aligns with
community development, we think it best • Evaluating the effectiveness of programs
suited for the Department of Commerce, but it designed to increase broadband
could also be housed within the Departments adoption.
of Education, Housing and Urban
Development, or the FCC. • With a working group of public and private
experts, create and continuously update a
The Office would be the principal entity digital skills framework for adult
charged with meeting broadband adoption education, workforce, and training
goals and tracking progress towards those programs;
goals. The Office would take on the
responsibilities of the American Broadband • Encourage Internet service providers
Initiative, with an expanded scope of (ISPs) to develop and strengthen
functions and new funding to help meet the voluntary low-cost broadband plans for
goals. low-income populations, with emphasis
on aligning eligibility for low-cost offerings
Specifically, the Office would: across providers;
• Expand and coordinate digital equity • Encourage hardware, device, and other
strategies and efforts within and among equipment manufacturers, software
federal, state, and local governments, companies, and device-related service
including coordinating with all providers to make available low-cost
stakeholders of the new affordability laptop and computer purchase plans and
programs discussed in Chapter 5, to essential software and other online tools
assure administrative ease and efficiency; for low-income populations.
• Incentivize participation in digital equity 4.5.2. ESTABLISH A NATIONAL DIGITAL
strategies from all sectors, particularly LITERACY PROGRAM.
employment training, education, health
care, finance, and retail; Congress should launch a National Digital
Literacy Program that creates a workforce of
• Coordinate and streamline federal grant “Digital Navigators, described further below,
programs aimed at increasing broadband increases the capacity of local digital literacy
adoption and network deployment; programs, and creates an Online Digital
Literacy Portal of up-to-date training
resources.
• Work with private and public affordable
housing owners and agencies to
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 62
4.5.2.1. Congress should create a Digital citizens, people with disabilities, those with
Navigators Corps to conduct training and lower education levels, people in rural
outreach in non-adopting communities. communities, those on Tribal lands, and
people whose primary or only language is not
Congress should create a Digital Navigators English.
Corps composed of skilled experts working to
solve a wide range of identified adoption 4.5.2.2. The Office of Management and
issues—including home connectivity, Budget (OMB), in consultation with the
devices, and digital skills—on behalf of local Institute of Museums and Library Sciences
community members, either remotely or in- (IMLS), should develop guidelines to ensure
person. Members of the Corps should that librarians and Community Based
include personnel from social service Organizations (CBOs) have the ongoing
agencies, libraries, health centers, training they need to help patrons use next-
community-based organizations, private generation e-government applications.
sector, volunteers, and other anchor
institutions. As government services increasingly go
online, libraries shoulder responsibility for
Many existing digital literacy training helping people learn how to use these online
programs, both in the United States and services. Already, eighty percent of libraries
abroad, rely on face-to-face training provided report that they help patrons use e-
by trusted experts within local communities. government applications. However, some
Whether using intergenerational training that librarians say they have been overwhelmed
allows youth committed to community service by patrons seeking help with government
to train senior citizens, peer-to-peer training services and online programs, particularly in
that enhances connections among seniors or an emergency or with a new government
youth, or mentoring models under which program, such as Federal Emergency
skilled college graduates reach out to Management Agency forms following
currently unconnected citizens, these Hurricane Katrina and Medicare Part D
programs help non-adopters become more paperwork. These librarians also say that
comfortable with technology while also they did not receive suitable training or
fostering volunteers’ commitment to information from the agencies that provided
community service. the e-government solutions.
State and local efforts like these offer valuable OMB, in consultation with IMLS, should
lessons for digital literacy services delivered develop and update guidelines to help federal
at scale. A national program can build on agencies develop e-government services that
these successful models and ensure the leverage the role of public libraries and CBOs
expansion needed to address digital literacy as delivery points for new services and
barriers. Specifically, Congress should direct programs as well as for next generation
the NTIA and the Corporation for National and technologies. Agencies should work with
Community Service (CNCS) to create the IMLS to develop online tutorials for using
Digital Navigators Corps. In collaboration, government websites and toolkits for
NTIA and CNCS can explore best-practice librarians who help patrons use online
models for building and managing the Corps, government services.
leveraging lessons learned from existing
programs like AmeriCorps, Senior Corps and 4.5.2.3. Congress should fund an Online
Learn and Serve America. CNCS can also Digital Readiness Portal.
leverage its own experience with the digital
television transition, during which it made sure Every American should have access to free,
that AmeriCorps members were in age-appropriate content that teaches digital
communities across the country helping skills and enhances digital readiness. This
individuals become more comfortable with content should be available in a user’s native
unfamiliar technology, language and should meet the accessibility
requirements applicable to federal agencies
The Corps should target segments of the under Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act.
population that are less likely to have adopted To achieve this, Congress should fund the
broadband at home, including low-income creation of an Online Digital Readiness Portal
individuals, racial and ethnic minorities, senior (ODRP), and the relevant government
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 63
agencies (including but not limited to the 4.5.2.4. Reinvigorate federal efforts to
NTIA, FCC, Department of Education, support digital literacy efforts through
Department of Labor, the Department of revitalizing the www.DigitalLiteracy.gov
Health and Human Services, the Bureau of platform.
Indian Affairs, and the Department of Housing
and Urban Development (HUD)) should The Obama Administration launched
oversee the portal and partner with the DigitalLiteracy.gov to serve as a resource to
technology industry and education sector to practitioners delivering digital literacy training
approve or create high-quality online lessons in their communities. The platform
that users can access and use at their own aggregated best practices, organized
pace. The collaboration between the available educational content, and increased
agencies and non-government partners coordination among stakeholders.
should be similar to efforts that have Unfortunately, the platform was not
produced the online safety resources appropriately maintained, and has now been
available through OnGuardOnline.gov. disabled. A revitalized and continually
upgraded central website, administered by
Offline resources will be important the NTIA, can serve as the foundation for
complements to this online content. They digital equity and inclusion efforts, assisting
should be made available for printing or with and improving the efforts of state and
ordering, and distributed by libraries, CBOs, local digital inclusion organizations.
and other community organizations.
4.5.2.5. Integrate information outreach into
The ODRP should build on the collaborative digital readiness initiatives.
model that has been successful in programs
such as the HUD Community Outreach Providing information is key to addressing the
Partnerships Program, which brings view of some non-adopters that the Internet is
institutions of higher education and not relevant. Conveying to such persons that
community partners together to revitalize the Internet is a pathway to a vaccine, a
communities, including the Historically Black doctor, or a grandchild, bundled with access
Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), Hispanic- to digital skills and affordable service plans,
Serving Institutions Assisting Communities can increase adoption. The federal
(HSIACs), Tribal Colleges and Universities government’s current emergency broadband
(TCUs) and Tribal Libraries. In addition to benefit program, which provides a $50 per
their educational missions, through the month subsidy for low-income households
Community Outreach Partnerships Program, during the pandemic, does not include funds
these organizations provide links to for outreach to communities. As the
community employment assistance, policymakers contemplate future broadband
childcare, health care information, fair adoption policy interventions, providing
housing assistance, job training, youth funding for outreach (to, for example,
programs and other services. As crucial community anchor institutions and community
community institutions and trusted sources of non-profits) can help address the relevance
information, HBCUs, HSIACs and TCUs could barrier.
also serve as ambassadors to promote digital
literacy and other national digital priorities. 4.5.3. CONGRESS SHOULD APPROPRIATE
HUD and NTIA should also use existing FUNDS TO SUPPORT DIGITAL EQUITY
relationships—for example, with state PLANNING AND DIGITAL INCLUSION
broadband offices—to distribute outreach INITIATIVES.
materials associated with the OLDP.
Congress should appropriate funding for
The OLDP should be evaluated after two development of adoption focused state, local,
years to assess its impact. The evaluation and Tribal digital equity plans, and
should consider, among other metrics, the competitive state and national grant programs
total number of individuals accessing the for digital inclusion initiatives. State level
portal, the number of individuals from specific planning provides an opportunity to identify
target populations accessing the portal, and existing assets, and for stakeholders to
the effectiveness of different offline resources prioritize digital equity needs. One approach
in promoting the portal. would be to pass and fund the proposed
Digital Equity Act, which would spend $250
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 64
million over each of the next five years for
state level planning and digital inclusion
grants.
FIGURE 1
HOUSEHOLD WIRELINE BROADBAND & COMPUTER ADOPTION BY INCOME (2018)
100%
96.1%
90%
80% 82.1% 82.0% 82.1% 82.0%
77.5%
70% 73.2%
70.0% 69.6%
60% 62.2%
50%
51.2%
45.4%
40%
30%
LT $25K BTW $25K & $50K BTW $50K & $75K BTW $75K & $150K GT $150K ALL
Wireline Broadband Desktop or Laptop
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 65
FIGURE 2
HOUSEHOLD WIRELINE BROADBAND & COMPUTER ADOPTION BY AGE (2018)
90%
80% 83.5% 83.1%
80.8%
79.3%
77.9% 77.3% 77.1%
75.9% 75.0% 75.0%
70%
70.3%
67.8% 67.8%
65.1%
60%
56.7%
50%
48.7%
40%
30%
AGE 18 TO 24 AGE 25 TO 34 AGE 35 TO 44 AGE 45 TO 54 AGE 55 TO 59 AGE 60 TO 64 AGE 65 TO 74 AGE 75 OR
OLDER
Wireline Broadband Desktop or Laptop
FIGURE 3
HOUSEHOLD WIRELINE BROADBAND & COMPUTER ADOPTION
BY RACE & ETHNICITY (2018)
100%
90%
88.7%
80% 81.6% 80.6%
70% 72.2%
68.7% 68.1%
65.9%
60% 63.9%
60.8%
59.0%
50%
40%
30%
Asian-Americans Whites African Americans Hispanics Native Americans
Wireline Broadband Desktop or Laptop
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 66
FIGURE 4
HOUSEHOLD WIRELINE BROADBAND & COMPUTER ADOPTION BY
GOVERNMENT HEALTH INSURANCE PROGRAM (2018)
100%
90%
80% 84.1%
76.4%
70% 73.9%
66.1% 64.7%
60%
57.4% 56.7%
50% 52.1%
40%
30%
Medicare Medicaid Tricare VA
Wireline Broadband Desktop or Laptop
FIGURE 5
HOUSEHOLD WIRELINE BROADBAND & COMPUTER ADOPTION
BY GOVERNMENT HEALTH INSURANCE PROGRAM (2018)
75%
70%
65%
60%
60.3%
55%
54.9%
53.2%
50% 51.2%
45%
40%
35%
30%
Wireline Broadband Desktop or Laptop
Gov Benefit -- SNAP or SSI Any Disability
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 67
Chapter 5.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
CLOSING THE
AFFORDABILITY
GAP
5.1. INTRODUCTION
In the previous two chapters, we described the state of broadband in the United States
and identified the principal barriers to achieving digital equity and inclusion: an
availability gap and an adoption gap, with the principal issues limiting adoption being
affordability, digital readiness, and perceived relevance.
In this chapter, we describe the principal government effort to-date aimed at addressing
affordability—Lifeline—and why that program has not succeeded in closing the
affordability gap. Based on that analysis, we propose a plan to eliminate the affordability
gap, based on a new federal program that we call Lifeline+. Adopting and funding
Lifeline+ would yield significant public benefits, creating a more equitable and inclusive
economy and society by expanding broadband utilization overall, and closing specific
gaps in digital education, health care, and workforce development.
5.2. CURRENT PUBLIC AND the mid-1980s to help low-income Americans
pay for local telephone service. Lifeline
PRIVATE EFFORTS TO ADDRESS lowers the cost of monthly service for eligible
consumers by providing subsidies to service
AFFORDABILITY providers on behalf of consumer households.
5.2.1 THE LIFELINE PROGRAM. A number of states also have their own
programs to assist low-income persons afford
The principal federal government program communications services. While many
aimed at closing the adoption gap is Lifeline. provide critical funds, none is robust enough
The Reagan-era FCC created the program in to solve the affordability gap we discuss here.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 69
Further, as this Plan is focused primarily on at home. A related argument is that when
federal policies, we will not discuss individual forced to choose between broadband at
state efforts in this chapter. home or a mobile service, many low-income
persons prefer the mobile service.
In 2005, the FCC made two major reforms to
Lifeline. First, it ruled wireless carriers could Second, many believe that not only is the cost
be eligible to provide phone service. Second, of the monthly service a barrier to an in home
it eliminated a requirement that eligible subscription but in addition, the cost of a
providers own the facilities they use, device capable of doing work, school work,
permitting companies like TracFone, which telehealth or other such functions is a barrier
leases wireless services from “facilities to adopting.
based” providers, to become major providers
of Lifeline. Third, many believe that lack of information
about the program and undue complexities in
In 2015, the FCC reformed the program again, the administrative process for applying for it
this time to allow the subsidy to be used for results in the vast majority of eligible
either broadband or voice service, or bundles households forgoing participation.
that include broadband service. Given the
cost of home broadband and the need for Fourth, many believe that because
phone service, however, most Lifeline users companies that offer Lifeline services must
continue to apply the subsidy to low-cost satisfy state requirements for “Eligible
mobile service. Telecommunications Carriers” (ETCs), the
number and quality of Lifeline providers is
To participate in the program, subscribers artificially reduced, effectively limiting
must have either an income that is at or below participation to niche voice communications
135% of the federal poverty guidelines, or providers. The ETC requirement
participate in certain federal assistance unnecessarily undercuts market dynamics
programs, including SNAP, Medicaid, or SSI. that, with more providers offering competitive
The Lifeline subsidy on qualifying monthly products, could lower the costs and increase
broadband service for eligible subscribers is the quality of Lifeline programs.
$9.25 per month, with up to an additional $25
per month for qualifying Tribal subscribers. 5.2.1.2 The current funding mechanism.
The subsidy for voice service is $5.25 as of
December 1, 2020; absent further action by Lifeline is part of the broader Universal
the FCC, no subsidy will be provided for voice Service Program (USF), which also subsidizes
starting December 1, 2021. As of October network infrastructure deployment in sparsely
2020, 8.2 million households participated in populated or geographically challenging
the program. areas, where expected returns on the capital
necessary to build a broadband network do
5.2.1.1 Criticisms of the current program. not justify private investment. USF also
subsidizes equipment and network
There is widespread agreement that Lifeline in connections costs for anchor institutions
its current form does not achieve the goals of (schools, and libraries facilities, generally
digital equity and inclusion, nor is it designed known as the “E-Rate Program”), and rural
in a way that would make that outcome likely health care facilities. According to the
over time. As a practical matter, the program Universal Service Administrative Co., which
has become a subsidy for a low-end mobile collects funds and services USF programs,
Internet service, not for broadband at home. total USF disbursements have held steady at
Even with its more limited reach, the program approximately $8.5 billion over the last three
has been less than successful. As of January years.
2021, only 8.7 million of the 33.2 million
eligible households participate in the As discussed in Chapter 3, the sole funding
program. mechanism for providing all USF programs to
an increasing number of homes, institutions,
Generally, there are three explanations for and individuals has significant structural
why the system is failing. First, many believe problems, and, it is generally agreed, is
that the level of subsidy, at $9.25, is unsustainable. Under FCC rules, revenue to
insufficient to subscribe to broadband service support USF programs, including Lifeline, is
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 70
paid by providers of certain voice mechanism to support expanded efforts to
communications services, primarily but not close the affordability gap.
exclusively voice services, most of whom
pass this cost along to consumers. The 5.2.2. NEW PUBLIC SECTOR EFFORTS TO
providers pay USF a prescribed percentage ADDRESS THE AFFORDABILITY GAP.
of the amount their customers pay for
interstate and international services. That As we were preparing this Plan, Congress, for
rate, known as the “contribution factor,” is the first time, directly appropriated funds for
adjusted quarterly based on rising or falling broadband subsidies for low-income persons.
demand from eligible participants in USF- This effort, part of a COVID-19 relief package,
funded programs. There are several issues the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2021,
with this mechanism: allocated $3.2 billion for an Emergency
Broadband Benefit Program (EBB) to connect
Not sustainable or expandable. Due to low-income households. The funds will be
declining revenues for the services on which used to reimburse broadband providers up to
the contribution factor is based, the $50/month per low-income household it
percentage assessed from consumers has serves, or $75/month if the household is on
continued to increase. Ten years ago, the rate Tribal land. The Act also authorizes
was 12.9%. By 2017 it had risen to 16.7%. reimbursements to providers of up to $100 for
The 2Q21 contribution factor is 33.4%. As the providing the household with a connected
associated revenue goes down, the device (desktop, laptop, or tablet computer),
contribution factor goes up, encouraging if the household contributes $10-$50 for the
providers and their customers to substitute device. Households are only eligible for one
other services that are not assessed, putting device.
the funding mechanism and the entire USF
program into a death spiral. The EBB program is temporary, to last no
longer than six months after the COVID-19
Unfair regressive tax. Not only is the system crisis ends. Funds will be administered
structurally unsound, but it is also unfair. through the FCC. Congress gave the agency
Since the percentage is applied regardless of sixty days to determine the details of
the economic status of the consumer, it is in administering the program.
effect a regressive tax, hitting low-income
consumers harder than more affluent users. On January 4, the FCC released a Public
Notice seeking comments on how to best
Support for broadband service has raised implement the program. Notably, the EBB
legal questions. In addition to these program is not limited to ETCs, and the FCC,
problems, some have raised legal concerns. through its Notice proposes to establish an
The DC Circuit Court of Appeals, in "expedited process" to approve non-ETC
remanding parts of the FCC’s 2017 Restoring providers who wish to participate. The FCC
Internet Freedom Order (RIFO) called on the process also asked several questions about
FCC to explain the statutory basis for devices, family or personal eligibility and
continuing Lifeline subsidies for broadband verification, and how best to publicize the
even though the FCC no longer classified program. The FCC adopted its order on the
broadband as a telecommunications service. program on February 25,.
In its order responding to the remand, the In addition, as part of the American Rescue
FCC explained its finding that it has legal Plan of 2021, Congress appropriated $7.17
authority under section 254(e) of the Act to billion in funding to augment the E-Rate
distribute Lifeline support for broadband program. The appropriation makes available
service provided by ETCs, and that that funds for elementary and secondary schools
authority is undergirded by the clear intent of and libraries to provide Wi-Fi hotspots,
Congress in Section 254(b) and elsewhere modems, routers, and Internet-enabled
that universal service efforts should increase devices. While E-Rate funding traditionally
access to advanced services. has only gone to connect educational
institutions, this money could be used to fund
While the FCC addressed the issue, the Internet services for students, staff, and
situation demonstrates another potential library patrons. Congress instructed the FCC
question in relying on the current funding to promulgate regulations concerning the
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 71
allocation of these funds within 60 days of the not and could not easily become ETCs,
bill’s passage. and therefore cannot take advantage of
the current Lifeline subsidy to further
While both programs represent one-time reduce the cost of participation. Further,
appropriations, they also provide even some ETCs that offer a private low-
opportunities for the FCC and our country to income program do not seek to offer those
consider new ways of addressing the services in coordination with Lifeline,
affordability gap. citing numerous administrative difficulties.
5.2.3 PRIVATE SECTOR EFFORTS TO • The private efforts are not currently utilized
ADDRESS THE AFFORDABILITY GAP. to any significant degree in partnership
with public programs aimed at closing the
In addition to government efforts to close the affordability gap.
affordability gap, there are also a significant
number of voluntary private efforts to connect • As noted earlier, the FCC has not updated
low-income persons from leading fixed and its view on the functional requirements,
mobile broadband providers. These efforts such as speed, for accessing services. In
have already resulted in millions of homes that light, there is uncertainty as to the
being connected to broadband at a greatly extent to which these private programs
reduced price. Such efforts should not be meet those needs. It is worth noting that
considered a replacement for public while these programs may not be subject
programs, but their availability and operation to the same market dynamics as
provide important lessons for the design of competition for customers able to pay
new governmental programs aimed at standard retail rates, there are forces in
overcoming barriers to adoption, including the market that drive improvements in the
affordability. offering. For example, Comcast recently
doubled its download speed for its
Key findings from our review of these private Internet Essentials program from 25Mbps
sector efforts include: to 50Mbps.
• While private efforts are not available • Similarly, while some of the programs
everywhere, companies offering low- have won significant praise for their
income programs cover over 90% of outreach efforts, there is uncertainty as to
American homes. how effectively some of these programs
are marketed to eligible households.
• Because of overlaps in footprints, two or Again, on this issue, there has been no
more low income offers are probably public assessment by the FCC or other
available to about 50% of homes, though public entity.
again, the eligible number of homes is
likely to be less. Still, it is likely that a In addition to private retail efforts, there are
material percentage of non-adopting several wholesale programs, such as that
households are eligible for an available offered by AT&T and Verizon, which offer
program. discounted services to local school districts
whose administrators can in turn use to offer
• The private efforts offer broadband at a low-cost service to students. These
significantly discounted prices. While the programs, however, generally limit the use to
average price for a retail broadband educational purposes only. If such efforts are
service is almost $70 a month, the cost of expanded to achieve the goals of a reformed
the low-income programs—which may be low-income subsidy program, it would be
offered at lower speeds than the average important to examine any limitations and
service—ranges from $10-$20 a month. modify such restrictions.
5.2.4. THE CHALLENGE: THE CURRENT
• The private efforts are not integrated into SYSTEM CANNOT MEET CURRENT, LET
public programs aimed at closing the ALONE FUTURE, NEEDS.
affordability gap. For example, several of
the largest private providers of broadband
programs for low-incomes households are
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 72
Existing public programs, even program implicitly acknowledges, Internet
supplemented and supported by private access is essential for taking advantage of
efforts, have and will continue to fail to close the training services and being about to
the affordability gap. The two most obvious obtain benefits, as the site has the
improvements—increasing the monthly following message: “Nearly 2,400 AJCs
subsidy and connecting all eligible nationwide help people search for jobs,
households—would certainly be welcome, find training, and answer other
but both would require dramatic increases to employment related questions. COVID-19
Lifeline’s budget and major changes to its update: Please note that many AJCs are
operating model. In any event, increasing the temporarily closed or shifted to virtual
contribution factor to accommodate either, let services; you will see a special note in red
alone both, would collapse the system. if we have information about closures or
Further, the EBB is a temporary fix for a alternative services. If you need to file for
problem that will continue to exist after the unemployment insurance, please visit
COVID-19 crisis. Unemployment Benefits Finder.”
There are other limits to Lifeline. The program • Health Care. The federal government is
does not include support to acquire devices, the largest purchaser and provider of
which some of the private offerings do health care and health insurance in the
include, along with other forms of technical country. It does so principally through
support not part of Lifeline. Some of the Medicare, which covers over 60 million
discounted mobile broadband plans, for persons 65 years old or older, as well as
example, come with data allowances that may covering some younger persons with
be insufficient to complete essential tasks, disabilities; Medicaid, a partnership
especially for families with K-12 children or between the federal and state
medical problems, or during times of job governments to provide health care
training or job searches. Many of the non- coverage to low-income persons,
financial factors described in Chapter 4 are covering over 75 million people, and
also not adequately addressed by any services to over 9 million veterans,
existing program. administered by the Veterans Health
Administration, the largest component of
5.2.4.1. The federal government has a the Department of Veterans Affairs. Here
history of setting national baselines for the too, the government’s ability to deliver
delivery of critical public services that are such services is increasingly dependent
now heavily reliant on broadband access. on the persons they cover having
broadband at home. For example, In
In proposing a reform or restructuring of low- February 2020, less than 1% of Medicare
income broadband programs, it is worth primary care visits utilized telehealth. By
considering, at the outset, the value of setting April of that year, that number was 43.5%.
baseline requirements and identifying
essential services, factors that regulators • Education. The federal government has
have historically relied on in program design. long-supported local schools. In the
With particular relevance to workforce, health 1940’s, for example, Congress
care and education, we note that: recognized an obligation to make sure
that all children attending school had a hot
• Workforce. The primary governmental lunch. The National School Lunch Act
support for unemployed persons is provides nutritionally balanced, low-cost
provided at the state level but receives at or no-cost lunches to children each school
least partial funding from the federal day in public and nonprofit private
government. Beyond financial schools, and in residential childcare
assistance, public and private services institutions. The Department of Education
provide education and job training. Many also provides direct funding to elementary
of these services can best be utilized and secondary school with economically
through the Internet, especially during the disadvantaged students (the Elementary
current medical emergency, as many of and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) Title
the 2,400 in-person federal American I and children with disabilities through the
Jobs Centers, for example, remain closed. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
As a visit to the website for the federal (IDEA).
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 73
Increasingly, many of the most basic tasks broadband at home have become essential
associated with workforce development, not just to complete homework, but for all or
health care, education, and other critical almost all classroom and school-related
aspects of daily life can be done most learning. While COVID-19 has shined a
effectively, efficiently, and reliably when done spotlight on the need for students to have
online. As discussed further in Chapter 8 on connectivity in the homes, schools close for
workforce development, for example, a 2012 reasons other than the pandemic, including
study showed broadband use at home or in a winter weather, extreme heat, wildfires,
public place such as a library reduced the flooding, hurricanes, and tornadoes, which all
probability that an unemployed person will cause extended disruptions to in-school
stop their job search entirely by 50 percent instruction, and likely will increase in the
relative to people who are unemployed and future.
do not use Internet, while a recent study from
the Philadelphia Federal Reserve found This transformation of in-person services long
“promoting broadband device access and considered essential to digital alternatives
digital literacy training to households where necessitates access to an appropriate device
an individual may have lost employment is and broadband at home, a trend that will only
crucial to ensuring people remain attached to increase in the future. Policymakers will need
the labor market following such an event.” to continuously adapt to new developments
and challenges, creating programs that
As discussed further in Chapter 9 on health assure access to what are considered
care, here too, the government’s ability to essential services by all citizens, most of all
deliver such services is increasingly those facing significant obstacles due to
dependent on the persons they cover having financial, social, cultural, language, or other
broadband at home. For example, In February causes.
2020 less than 1% of Medicare primary care
visits utilized telehealth. By April of that year, To the extent that lawmakers have long-
that number was 43.5%. supported the in-person versions of these
essential services and activities through a
Not only has the use of telehealth increased, variety of mechanisms, programs, and
but the range of services has also increased funding models, we believe it is now time to
as well. But there is a significant gap in who include an appropriate level of support for
can utilize such services. According to their Internet-based equivalents. Broadband-
research from University of Pittsburgh and based delivery and full utilization of these
Harvard Medical School, more than 41% of essential services must become part of the
Medicare patients lack access to a desktop or DNA of the respective public, private, and
laptop computer with a high-speed Internet public-private collaborations involved in, at a
connection at home. Almost 41% do not have minimum, workforce, health care, and
a smartphone, and more than 26% don’t have education. It is both the reason closing the
access to either. availability and affordability gaps is so critical
to achieving digital equity and inclusion, and
Finally, as discussed in Chapter 10 on the most compelling way, at the same time, to
education, the inability to keep up with remove any remaining issues of relevance in
schoolwork or learn Internet skills at a young closing the adoption gap.
age puts students at a significant
disadvantage in the future. 94% of low- Reforming current public programs to assure
income school districts assign homework that broadband adoption to utilize these essential
is online, which makes Internet access a services, described below and in more detail
necessity for students. Yet research based in succeeding chapters, is among the most
on the most recent census data shows that critical recommendation in this Plan for
15-16 million K-12 students lack adequate improving digital equity and inclusion.
access to the Internet and/or a device on
which to do school work at home. 5.3. RETHINKING AFFORDABILITY:
COVID-19 has now transformed a serious FIRST PRINCIPLES.
“homework gap” into a full-fledged learning
gap, as schools are forced to offer only or We need a program to ensure that everyone
mostly virtual learning. Computers and can afford broadband at home to access
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 74
essential services. By design and practicality, 5.3.3. ALIGN GOVERNMENT
the existing Lifeline program will likely never INSTITUTIONAL INCENTIVES.
be more than a lower-end mobility and voice
program. While Lifeline certainly can and As currently designed, Lifeline has created an
should be improved, and while mobile and inherent conflict of interest for those charged
fixed service capabilities are converging, we with administering it. On the one hand, the
believe there remains a material difference FCC is tasked with administering Lifeline to
between the lower priced mobile data and assure that low-income persons have access
voice services we want everyone to have for to communications services. At the same
purposes of emergency communications and time, the agency is constrained by a
other critical uses, and the broadband at regressive contribution factor. The more
home necessary for an entire household to people it signs up, the higher the prices paid
participate in 21st century life. for voice services by everyone, especially the
poor, even though most of the universal
We believe it is time for a new national service funding goes to programs other than
strategy for universal broadband, one that Lifeline.
supports the goals of digital equity and
inclusion. That program, which we describe A new program should seek to eliminate that
below, should be grounded in several basic conflict, by ensuring a more sustainable,
principles, including: stable, and progressive funding mechanism.
5.3.1. DON’T TAKE AWAY EXISTING In doing so, it is worth considering ways in
BENEFITS. which in the achievement of digital equity and
inclusion can promote, rather than conflict,
The purpose of the new programs is to with the goal of providing essential services in
expand broadband adoption and utilization. the most cost-effective manner possible. It
In so doing, the program should not take away might make sense for some institutions, public
benefits that people already have and rely on. and private, to fund the new broadband
We should not force low-income households services we propose because doing so, in the
to choose between a mobile service and long run, would pay for itself in the form of
broadband at home. reduced costs and improved service levels.
Widespread use of online health care, for
5.3.2. ADDRESS THE MOST URGENT example, could reduce the incidence of post-
NEEDS FOR BROADBAND AT HOME, natal complications for infants and chronic
INCLUDING BROADBAND medical conditions for adults, which not only
FUNCTIONALITY, APPROPRIATE DATA means better health outcomes for individuals
PLANS, AND DEVICES THAT ENABLE THE but also lower long-term costs for public
DESIRED ACTIVITY. health. Similar improvements in workforce
development and education are likely.
Building on existing benefits, the new
programs we propose must at a minimum 5.3.4. DESIGN PROGRAMS TO BE
provide for broadband at home that can POLITICALLY SECURE.
support the essential services we have
identified. Specifically, the new program must To the extent that consumers or taxpayers will
empower those who become underemployed ultimately pay for the programs we propose,
or unemployed to train, search, apply, and public perceptions of the benefits of digital
interview for new jobs using the same online equity and inclusion matter deeply. To the
tools that have long since been adopted by extent that the program we propose provides
higher-income workers, support K-12 broadband for specific uses and essential
students with the connectivity. Further the services that the public sees as creating
new program needs to provide devices public benefits, ongoing support for the
recipients need to attend classes and program is likely to be more sustainable.
complete schoolwork, and allow recipients of
government health benefits to take full 5.3.5. STANDARDIZE PROGRAM
advantage of a growing range of online REQUIREMENTS TO THE EXTENT
services. POSSIBLE.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 75
While the new program should be designed to As discussed throughout this document,
meet different needs and use cases, it should those who currently have not adopted
be engineered to standardize eligibility, broadband could use broadband for multiple
funding, participation, and reimbursement purposes with public benefits, including
requirements, to the extent practical, to workforce development, healthcare, and
improve customer access and protection, education. The program should be designed
lower administrative costs, and encourage to enable all such uses.
participation by the maximum number of
broadband providers, private and public. Further, the program should be designed to
utilize those overlapping uses to lower costs
5.3.6. MAINTAIN TECHNOLOGICAL AND and improve efficiency. For example, there is
PROVIDER NEUTRALITY. a significant overlap between the population
that needs broadband at home for education
The new program should be focused on and for healthcare. For 2019, Medicaid
achieving digital equity and inclusion. For reported a total of 71.4 million people covered
reasons of practicality, timing, and budget, by the program (which includes the 6.7 million
achieving those goals requires programs that on the Children Health Insurance Program
are inherently technology neutral. So long as (CHIPs)). Roughly half of all people on
new or emerging technologies can support Medicaid or CHIPs are between the ages 0-
the effective use of the essential services we 19. That translates to 34.7 million children on
have identified, providers using those Medicaid/CHIPs. The American Community
technologies should be eligible to participate Survey reports that 66% of households with
in the programs. Any provider, or children under the age of 18 have broadband
combination of providers, who can satisfy the at home. That means approximately 11.8
requirements for delivering broadband at million children (age 0 to 19) covered by
home should be considered eligible for Medicaid/CHIPs live in 5.9 million homes
participation in the programs. This could without broadband at home. The "homework
include public, private, and public/private gap," meanwhile, is 16.9 million kids, or 8.4
partnerships, and both for-profit and not-for- million households.
profit enterprises. Technology and provider
neutrality will not only close the remaining We believe that there is, deservedly,
gaps more quickly and efficiently, but it will significant support for a new program to
also encourage competition, lowering costs address the homework gap. We support any
and improving choice. effort to do so. We note, however, that funding
programs to eliminate the homework gap,
5.3.7. DESIGN THE PROGRAM SO THAT while paying huge benefits to society in the
THE GOVERNMENT CAN LEARN AND long term, do not result in near term savings.
ADJUST TO REAL-LIFE, MAXIMIZING On the other hand, providing a broadband
BENEFITS WHILE MINIMIZING COSTS AS benefit to low-income families to enable
TECHNOLOGIES AND MARKETS EVOLVE. access to telehealth services, as discussed in
Section 5.4.5.7 and Chapter 9, can result in
Any new programs will encounter unexpected both improved health outcomes and reduce
issues. Further, markets and technology will the cost of health care services, cost
change, producing impacts on the program reductions that could be used to provide the
that are not foreseeable today. This is broadband benefit.
especially true for digital innovations, which
evolve quickly and often unpredictably. In Here, a broadband benefit utilizing the
that light, the programs we propose should be savings to the Medicaid/CHIPs health
flexible, and designed to provide necessary insurance system could cover about 70% of
information to those administering the those currently suffering from the homework
program to be able to quickly modify the gap. Using such a benefit to address the
programs to maximize benefits while homework gap would not solve the whole
minimizing costs. problem. There would still be approximately
5 million school children living in 2.5 million
5.3.8. TAKE ADVANTAGE OF households who would not be covered. Still,
OVERLAPPING BROADBAND USE CASES paying to address the homework gap through
TO IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE savings to be found for existing government
PROGRAM. health insurance systems would quickly
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 76
increase the number of connected homes Congressional appropriation would
with school children and significantly reduce accomplish the fundamental goal of largely
the annual cost of program. Further, because eliminating affordability as an obstacle to
of the existing relationships between the adoption. Of course, the FCC should study its
Medicaid/CHIPs programs and their initial implementation of the EBB to refine and
beneficiaries, there are existing channels that improve its effectiveness and should, with
would improve the efficacy of the distribution congressional direction, implement a direct-
of the broadband benefit. to-beneficiary distribution of the funding to
enhance consumer control and choice. Still,
In short, in designing the Lifeline+ program, making the EBB permanent would be the
the government should look at all existing single most important action to increase the
programs that serve low-income persons to number of Americans connected to
determine how to provide a broadband broadband in the home.
benefit in ways that will both generate savings
that can be used to pay for the broadband 5.4.3. ALTERNATIVELY, CONGRESS
benefit while also improving distribution of the COULD CONSIDER A FUNCTIONAL
benefit. APPROACH THAT CREATE A NEW
PROGRAM TO SERVE BOTH MOBILE AND
BROADBAND AT HOME NEEDS TO
5.4. RECOMMENDATIONS ASSURE ACCESS TO WORKFORCE
DEVELOPMENT, HEALTHCARE, AND
Based on those principles, we have the EDUCATION.
following recommendations.
While we favor a permanent program based
5.4.1. BUILD THE ADMINISTRATION OF A on the EBB, we also understand that that there
NEW PROGRAM ON WHAT THE FCC DOES are challenges to enacting such legislation.
AND LEARNS FROM IN ITS In that light, we present an alternative that
ADMINISTRATION OF THE EBB AND THE focuses on addressing those in-home needs
AUGMENTED E-RATE PROGRAM. that create clear public benefits in the form of
improved outcomes in workforce
As noted above, the FCC set rules and just development, healthcare, and education.
started administering the $3.2 billion EBB While the program we propose would not
program and is now developing rules for an have the simplicity—an important virtue in
augmented E-Rate program. Both programs public policy design—of making the EBB
are designed to address the affordability gap. permanent, it would have advantages in terms
As of this writing, we cannot know what of distribution and cost savings, as described
lessons the FCC will learn in the below.
implementation of the programs. We believe,
however, that the administrative issues will be The remainder of this chapter relates to our
similar to those that the FCC would face in recommendations concerning the
implementing the long-term program we implementation of a new program based on a
propose. While we will make a number of functional approach, which we call Lifeline+.
design recommendations, we think that the We note, however, that many of the
real-world experience of the FCC is likely to recommendations for administering the
be the best guide for how to implement such program, set forth in 5.4.5 below, would apply
programs. Therefore, all or our to both a permanent EBB program and to
recommendations should be reevaluated in Lifeline+.
light of how the COVID-19 related programs
are implemented and their impact on 5.4.4. THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF
adoption. LIFELINE+ SHOULD SERVE BOTH MOBILE
AND IN-HOME NEEDS.
5.4.2. CONGRESS SHOULD IMPLEMENT A
PERMANENT VERSION OF THE EBB. Lifeline+ would consist of a mobile benefit
and a broadband at home benefit. The in-
We think Congress was correct in providing home benefit would consist of one of three
an EBB to address problems created by broadband at home services. The
COVID-19. Further, we think making that components of Lifeline+ are:
benefit permanent through an ongoing
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 77
1. LifelineMobile, which, while in need of those required to do school work or access
comprehensive reform, for purposes of health care), and update that definition
these recommendations would continue periodically to assure that changes in
the current Lifeline subsidy for basic voice requirements are reflected the program.
and mobile functions; and
In addition, the FCC should determine a
2. LifelineHome, which itself is composed of: minimum standard for upload and download
speeds, latency, data allowance and other
technical and non-technical factors, but only
a. LifelineJobs, which would support the to the extent necessary to support the
unemployed, empowering them to essential services included in the programs.
utilize online programs to upgrade The FCC should perform periodic reviews of
their skills, as well as search and apply these standards and adjust them as needed
for jobs; to assure that changes in requirements are
reflected in the program. All such FCC
b. LifelineMed, which would support low- determinations should be done in consultation
income persons in utilizing the full with the other relevant federal agencies, such
suite of telehealth services; and as those involved with workforce
development, healthcare, and education.
c. LifelineEd, which would support low-
income families with K-12 school While we advocate for standardization, we
children and members of their also note that the experience of educators
households utilizing all forms of digital during the COVID-19 crisis suggests that with
learning. the LifelineEd program in particular, there
should a level of flexibility that builds on the
All eligible families or persons would be long-standing E-Rate relationship between
eligible for both the mobile and one schools and providers, and the flexibility of
broadband at home benefit. Use of the in- various technologies, such as mobile
home benefit would not be restricted, so that hotspots, to provide broadband for
regardless of specific service, the person or educational purposes. Not only can such
family could use broadband for any purpose. solutions be deployed quickly, they also
provide an important “pack-and-go” Internet
5.4.5. ADMINISTRATIVE to a student who may need service in a
RECOMMENDATIONS COMMON TO temporary new location or in multiple family
EITHER A PERMANENT EBB OR A locations. Granting flexibility in the
LIFELINE+ PROGRAM. distribution of the benefits by the school
system or municipality can produce an
5.4.5.1. Fund both services and devices. efficient and focused use of funding to
achieve digital learning objectives.
The program should fund both connectivity
and devices capable of performing relevant 5.4.5.3. Establish standard protocols for
functions. This could include desktop, laptop, transferring benefits.
or tablet computers, but not, due to limited
display and keyboard size among other The benefits in Lifeline+ should be granted
factors, most current smartphones, unless the directly to beneficiaries through a reloadable
smartphones will be used as a mobile hotspot prepaid debit card, otherwise known as an
in conjunction with other equipment capable Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) card. Ideally
of performing the relevant functions. it would be a branded card (for example, Visa
or MasterCard) which virtually all ISPs accept
5.4.5.2. Assure minimum standards for both for payment. The cards should be coded with
the device and the broadband service. a Merchant Category Code that ensures
funds in the card account are only used to
As discussed in Chapter 3, the FCC should make payments to certified providers. The
define standards for networks and services program would enroll consumers, activate
that qualify for subsidy support. This includes their card accounts, and distribute the cards
a determination of requirements for a device and manage the monthly benefits.
= capable of performing what the FCC
determines are relevant functions (such as
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 78
Participating consumers would then use the service provider they use. Beneficiaries
funds in the card account to pay for, or help should also choose the specific equipment
pay for, the home Internet service of their they use, within guidelines established
choice from certified providers. The through the program. For devices, the
consumer would be responsible for any guidelines should establish minimal
monthly charges not covered by the benefit, requirements for memory, storage, display
such as additional video services from the resolution, connectivity, and capabilities for
provider. Participating providers would upgrades. Purchases of the device and the
provide the service and accept payment, but service can be facilitated through a voucher
not be otherwise involved in program or some other form of electronic payment.
administration, similar to SNAP. This The exception to individual choice would be
safeguards consumer privacy and dignity, for the LifelineEd program, where school
minimizes provider administrative burdens, districts may have identified specific devices
and encourages the widest possible they need the students to use to facilitate
participation by ISPs. Providing benefits administrative efficiency and coordination of
directly to beneficiaries avoids operational curriculum.
challenges that arise if the government were
to contract directly with providers on behalf of 5.4.5.6. Assure security and transparency.
individual consumers. For example, the
government would avoid the need to contract In setting standards for the equipment and the
with multiple service providers to ensure service, the program should maximize user
coverage for all beneficiaries and to adjust security and data transparency. This has
service arrangements as beneficiaries been an issue, for example, in the FCC’s
relocate, a particular challenge in transient current Lifeline program. According to
housing situations. Malwarebytes Labs, at least one such
provider—Assurance Wireless by Virgin
5.4.5.4. Assure lowest possible price Mobile—offered a $35 smartphone with pre-
through volume discounts. installed apps to collect user data, create
backdoors for future access, and enable
For both devices and broadband services, auto-installers for other apps. These activities
the government should negotiate discounts were undertaken without customer knowledge
for equipment and service providers’ retail or consent, introducing the potential for
prices to achieve the highest quality products malware to be installed when an app update
and services at the lowest possible cost to becomes available. The program should
participating consumers. These discounts prohibit any company from offering free or
would be and should be implemented in ways reduced-cost equipment that come with
similar to those that providers offer in undisclosed or non-optional applications.
connection with sales to large volume Additionally, the program should require that
commercial purchasers. Similar “master providers whose devices include pre-installed
contracts” are used today by wireless carriers apps report how they screen apps and
and state/local governmental entities, for updates, including disclosure of what user
example. Participating consumers would information is being collected and how it is
then be charged for devices and monthly being used. Customers should have access
service that reflect negotiated retail discounts. to this disclosure to ensure informed consent.
In all events, participating consumers should
remain free to use their electronic benefit to 5.4.5.7. Work in partnership with the ISPs
purchase any generally available retail and other stakeholders.
broadband product in the market from any
participating provider, and not be limited to The new program should build on existing
the products and rates established pursuant public, private, and public/private partnership
to the master contract. programs aimed at expanding digital equity
and inclusion, which generally involve
5.4.5.5. Assure individual choice. working in partnership with ISPs. The forms of
partnership may differ somewhat between the
As noted above, while the federal government different services. For example, with the
should negotiate reduced program rates with general approach, the FCC should work with
eligible providers, program beneficiaries the ISPs offering low-income programs to
should have the final choice over the specific assure efficiency and wide distribution.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 79
With the Lifeline+ approach, the approach will study found that, cumulatively,
differ with the specific service. With implementation of use cases could potentially
LifelineEd, ISPs should provide data that result in cost savings to the Health and Social
school districts need to help identify which Care services of an estimated £247,688 per
students lack at-home broadband, and the hundred users per year.7 These Internet-
ISPs and school districts should work together enabled interventions reduced hospital
to standardize procedures and minimize admissions, physician visits, medication
administrative costs for connection and on- costs, caretaker hours, and patient loneliness;
going operation. The COVID-19 experience and, increased health outcomes, medication
has already produced these kinds of adherence, the ability to manage one’s own
partnerships. For example, ChiefsforChange, health, comfort with using technology, and
a coalition of leaders of school districts, has quality of life.
documented several examples of school
districts that have been working to quickly 5.4.5.8. Improving awareness of the
connect students in light of closings caused program.
by COVID-19. One particularly notable
example is the Connected Chicago initiative, Awareness of the current Lifeline program is
a partnership of the City of Chicago, the very low, evidenced by the fact that as of
Chicago Public School system, community- January 2021, only 8.7 million of an estimated
based organizations, and several 33.2 million eligible households participate in
philanthropic entities and leading Internet the program. Congress should require the
Service Providers. The initiative has created FCC and other relevant federal agencies to
a detailed toolkit aimed at connecting 100,000 coordinate in marketing and outreach efforts
currently offline school children. to help ensure that all Americans, including
those suffering from recent unemployment
Another example is the K-12 Bridge to due to the COVID-19 crisis, those newly
Broadband program. The program arose as eligible for the Supplemental Nutritional
a partnership between local school districts, Assistance Program, and those eligible for
ISPs, local governments, and various Medicaid, are informed of their eligibility for
philanthropic groups in the wake of the broadband support.
COVID-19 crisis, to facilitate home
connectivity for low-income students. The 5.4.6. ADMINISTRATIVE
program is developing a set of best practices RECOMMENDATIONS SPECIFIC TO THE
for providing the kind of connectivity that LIFELINE+ PROGRAM.
LifelineEd would scale nationally. It
recommends, for example, that as a starting 5.4.6.1. Lifeline+ should be administered
point, ISPs should confidentially identify jointly by the FCC and the federal agencies
students that lack broadband at home, and responsible for each substantive area.
work with school districts to standardize
procedures and minimize administrative costs The administration of LifelineJobs,
for getting these households connected. In LifelineMed, and LifelineEd services should
allocating funds, the program could use be a co-responsibility of the FCC and the
formulas similar to those used for the ESEA relevant federal agencies who currently
and E-Rate programs, both of which are support the respective services. LifelineJobs
designed to assist similar population groups. would be coordinated by the FCC and the
In addition, the program should leverage the Department of Labor, with the broadband
results of FCC E-Rate pilots in 2011-2012 that subsidy provided as part of unemployment
allowed funding for off-premises connectivity benefits. LifelineMed would be coordinated
and devices. by the FCC and the Departments of Health
and Human Services and Veterans Affairs,
For the LifelineMed program, designers with the broadband subsidy provided as part
should note the success of the City of of the benefits package to qualifying persons
Liverpool in improving health outcomes and covered by Medicare, Medicaid, or Veterans
cost savings through the provision of devices Health Administration Insurance. LifelineEd
and broadband services to covered persons. would be coordinated by the FCC, the
Liverpool conducted a “Health and Social Department of Education, and the Bureau of
Care Testbed,” which used 5G connectivity to Indian Education (BIE), with the funds
support health care delivery use cases. The distributed to local school systems, similar to
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 80
programs like E-Rate, ESEA, and IDEA, with 5.4.6.2.3. Coordinate and prioritize to
the local school systems then connecting minimize wasteful expenditures or
qualifying students in ways similar to how duplicative payments.
local school districts are already using federal
funds to connect their students on a Beneficiaries of LifelineHome may meet the
temporary basis. Further, to the extent that qualifications for more than one broadband at
Congress augments the E-Rate program as home service, but should only be eligible to
part of pending COVID-19 relief legislation, receive one benefit. LifelineHome should be
the FCC’s administration of the LifelineEd coordinated through a national verification
program should be based on lessons learned system, to assure that there are not duplicate
in the implementation of that effort. payments to multiple persons in the same
home. This can be accomplished through a
5.4.6.2. Lifeline+ should be administratively national database (the “Duplicates
coordinated, adhere to similar standards, Database”) to identify households receiving
and be designed to facilitate ease of benefits, with program personnel authorized
consumers obtaining the service, protect to access this database to enter participating
consumers, and optimize the benefits. household data and confirm no duplication of
benefits. The existing National Lifeline
In administering the program, the FCC and Accountability Database (NLAD), managed
other federal agencies should consider the by USAC, can serve as a model for the
following recommendations: Duplicates Database and should continue to
be used to ensure that households
5.4.6.2.1. Set national standards for participating in Lifeline+ receive no more than
eligibility and program operations in ways one mobile and one broadband at home
that reduce start-up and ongoing costs. benefit per household.
To the extent feasible, the standards for Congress or the FCC should determine rules
eligibility for LifelineJobs, LifelineMed, and for prioritizing the source of funds for a
LifelineEd should use similar criteria and broadband at home benefit where the person
administrative mechanisms to lower costs of or family qualifies for more than one in-home
signup, communicating about the programs benefit. As noted in Section 5.3.8, which
to eligible families, and on-going operations. discussed how a LifelineMed benefit would
Doing so requires that key elements of the cover approximately 70% of those needing a
programs be consistent across agencies and LifelineEd benefit, it may be advantageous to
across the country. For example, while prioritize funding sources for which
schools, state unemployment and broadband would generate near-term
government health care agencies would savings.
assist in enrolling consumers in the services
and distribute and activate Electronic Benefit 5.4.6.2.4. Allow bundling of mobile and
Transfer (EBT) card accounts, the FCC should broadband at home benefits.
establish a single type of card and account,
determine benefit levels, and certify providers The program should encourage providers to
for the programs. create service offerings that maximize the
value of the services to the customer. Some
5.4.6.2.2. Enable family use for all providers, for example, could develop plans
broadband services. that serve the needs of both the LifelineMobile
and one of the at home services. In that light,
To maximize benefits, the devices and the the program should allow the bundling of the
broadband subscriptions offered as part of LifelineMobile benefit and any one of the three
the broadband at home Lifeline+ services broadband at home benefits.
should not be restricted solely to specified
essential services, so that the other benefits of 5.4.6.2.5. The Lifeline+ program design
broadband adoption, including but not limited should include mechanisms that makes it
to education, job training, health care, access easy for applicants to learn about, apply for
to other government services, and civic and, if qualified, obtain the benefits.
engagement, may be available to everyone in
a participating household. Each service should adopt mechanisms that
build on related public programs such as
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 81
SNAP, Medicare, Medicaid, and such as all revenues collected by
unemployment insurance. The goal should communications providers and not just those
be to maximize the ease with which eligible currently counted in the contribution factor, as
beneficiaries learn about Lifeline+ and its well as the revenues of companies engaged
benefits, apply for the programs for which in a broad set of Internet-related activities. We
they qualify, and, if approved, receive the express no view here on the policy merits or
benefits. tradeoffs of any of specific method. We do,
however, note that contribution reform is likely
• For LifelineMobile, the FCC would to take the FCC several years, and will likely
coordinate with USDA and HUD to ensure be the subject of considerable political
that recipients of SNAP and other controversy and legal challenges. As we
qualifying programs are proactively believe the need for digital equity and
notified about their eligibility for inclusion is urgent, we propose alternative
LifelineMobile. means for funding the new programs that are
more certain legally and can be done more
quickly.
• For LifelineJobs, the Department of Labor
would work with state unemployment 5.4.7.2. The FCC should reexamine the
offices to proactively inform those subsidy for the mobile service.
applying for unemployment of their
eligibility.
As noted above, many critics of the current
Lifeline subsidy argue that the subsidy
• For LifelineMed, the administrators of amount is too low. That criticism is generally
government insurance policies would premised on the need for the subsidy to
proactively advise covered persons of enable eligible persons to subscribe to
eligibility requirements and the potential broadband at home. In developing the new
benefits if they qualify. program, the FCC should re-examine the
subsidy level for the new mobile service but
• For LifelineEd, local schools would notify do so in light of the other components of it
the parents of students qualifying for the adopts.
free school lunch programs of their
eligibility. 5.4.7.3. Congress should directly fund
Lifeline+ while also providing additional
5.4.7. THE FUNDING MECHANISM FOR funding, as necessary, and authorizing
EACH PROGRAM SHOULD ALIGN WITH existing programs to utilize savings to offer
CURRENT PRACTICES, INSTITUTIONAL broadband benefits.
INCENTIVES, AND THE NEED FOR A
SUSTAINABLE FUNDING MECHANISM. 5.4.7.3.1. Direct appropriations.
In terms of funding a general or a functional In lieu of the current contribution system or
approach to closing the affordability gap, we any of the proposed reforms to it, Congress
have the following recommendations. should instead appropriate funds for the
Lifeline+ program from the following sources:
5.4.7.1. Congress and the FCC should not
wait for contribution reform to begin to create • First, to the extent that Congress
a new program. appropriates funds to subsidize rural
deployment (as discussed in Chapter 3),
As discussed in several chapters, the current any allocated funds not disbursed through
mechanism for funding Universal Service is a reverse auction or other competitive
not sustainable, nor is it capable of providing mechanism should be repurposed to a
the new funding necessary to close the fund whose assets should be used to
affordability gap. Several alternatives have support the Lifeline+ program.
been proposed to replace the current system
for financing USF. These alternatives include • Second, Congress should dedicate all or
assessing fees based on each telephone at least some of the proceeds of any future
number in service, the purchase of Internet spectrum auctions to a fund whose assets
connected devices, ISP revenues, or a fee
attached to some broader revenue stream,
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 82
should be used to support the Lifeline+ patients in the home instead of more
program. expensive medical facilities.
• Third, Congress should appropriate at As also discussed in Chapter 9, the federal
least five years of the necessary funding government has already recognized, albeit on
to fully support the Lifeline+ program with a smaller scale than we propose here, the
funding sources to revert to the existing need for federal investment in patient
USF contribution factor, or such connectivity to improve health care outcomes
methodology as Congress may authorize in current programs. There is no doubt that
and as the FCC may adopt, if Congress the need and urgency has increased in light
does not renew appropriations at any time of trends that were accelerated due to
after the first five years. COVID-19. However, there is not an
authoritative analysis of the cost savings
The legal basis of some of these mechanisms across a broader spectrum of the population
is discussed in Appendix 5A. or an analysis of how the systems could, if
they assume in-home broadband in the home
5.4.7.3.2. Congress should mandate that of every covered person, both save funds and
existing government health insurance produce better outcomes. The institution best
programs provide LifelineMed benefits. suited to do such an analysis is CMMI, which
is charged with testing various payment and
Congress has, on various occasions, service delivery models for the purpose of
achieving better care for patients, better
enlarged the benefits that government health health for communities, and lower costs
insurance programs provide. For example, in through improvement in the health care
2003, Congress voted to add Part D to the system. As a starting point, CMMI should
Medicare program to cover various
prescription drugs. Given that in-home evaluate how universal adoption of
broadband is an increasingly vital social broadband by persons covered by Medicare
and Medicaid could lead to improvement in
determinant of health (see Appendix 9D), health care quality and a reduction in health
Congress should mandate that federal care costs through, among others, expanded
government health insurance policies,
including Medicare, Medicaid, and veteran’s and unified access to affordable care,
medical support, provide subsidies for the population health management (earlier
LifelineMed service to enable the covered detection of infectious diseases, chronic
disease management, preventative medicine,
persons to take advantage of the full range of etc.), increased administrative efficiencies,
telehealth services, while also improving the decreased paperwork, higher patient
effectiveness and efficiency of the programs. satisfaction, utilization of AI and other
emerging technologies, and consistent and
5.4.7.3.2.1 As an initial step, the Center for near real-time evaluations of health care
Medicare and Medicaid Innovation (CMMI) effectiveness.
should run a demonstration to determine the
level of savings that could be achieved if all To be clear, we are not suggesting that
covered persons had in-home broadband providing the broadband benefits discussed
and how to best structure the programs to herein should be dependent on or delayed
take advantage of universal connectivity of while the analysis is undertaken. As an initial
the covered persons. As discussed in greater matter, there will likely have to be some
detail in Chapter 9 and Appendix 9B, there is additional funding to cover the benefits. The
already significant evidence that telehealth analysis, however, is critical to understanding
services can save significant funds for a how to account for the savings over time that
health care system. For example, in 2012, the the benefits will bring and how to redesign
VA ran a program providing telehealth certain aspects of the program to take
services to over 150,000 beneficiaries which advantage of the universal connectivity.
resulted in average annual savings of $6,500
per patient, compared to $1,600 in annual
costs. These savings come through a variety We note that there are anecdotal reports that
of means, including by enabling targeting and the increased use of telehealth resulting from
monitoring specific conditions, reducing COVID-19 has increased some costs due to
transport costs, reducing emergency care increased utilization. However, as discussed
costs, and increasing the ability to keep in Chapter 9, this telehealth utilization was not
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 83
driven by persons of color; racial and ethnic involving a medical diagnosis or treatment,
minorities experienced a decline in access to nonetheless improve health outcomes and/or
care during the pandemic. While we can lower health care costs. Some of these are
understand that such increased use could discussed in Appendix 5B, entitled “Funding
have occurred, we are skeptical that over the Non-Medical Services Through Medicaid.”
long term, connectivity increases costs. As
noted above, the VA study and other similar Our understanding of the program suggests
efforts suggest otherwise. It is more likely that that the most effective way to connect
easier access led to visits that enabled unconnected Medicaid recipients in the
preventive care, leading to lower costs over current framework would be through the
time. Further, we note that the general trend Health Information Technology/Health
of business addressing customer concerns— Information Exchange (HIT/HIE) program.
and health care is different in many ways but The federal government has in the past
is still about addressing customer concerns— appropriated funds to increase the
is to use connectivity and a variety of effectiveness of the Medicaid program
mechanisms enabled by connectivity to through the utilization of information
improve intake, diagnosis, and treatment technology. It was done, for example, with
much more quickly and efficiently than they HIT/HIE expenses under ARRA, where the
could without connectivity. Thus, the federal government legislation offered a 90/10
experience with both health care and in federal match for the specified technology
businesses generally suggest that designing costs. Here, we believe the easiest way to
systems in light of connectivity that result in provide a broadband subsidy to connect low-
improved outcomes and reduced costs. income persons and families would be
through that program. That same framework
5.4.7.3.2.2 The Administration and Congress could be used here, with the federal
should create a new matchable administrative government providing the funds and the
expense in Medicaid for States to provide in- states then distributing the benefit to
home broadband to Medicaid enrollees. unconnected covered persons, which
Medicaid, which because of its focus on low- effectively would serve as a means of
income persons, is likely to be the program to increasing the efficacy of their health
offer the broadband at home benefit to the information technology systems, and
greatest number of persons. It is a federal therefore meet the definition of “activities that
program administered and partially funded by are proper and efficient for the administration
the states. Due to the federal-state of the Medicaid Electronic Health Records
partnership model, programmatic changes (EHR) Incentive Program.”. While we would
are generally done at the state, rather than support the federal government subsidizing
federal, level. 100% of the necessary amount, we note that
states have demonstrated their recognition of
It is possible, however, for the federal the need to connect low-income persons, with
government to incentivize and/or empower many states using CARES Act funding to
the states to act in preferred ways in their connect students and also having their own
administration of Medicaid. Traditionally, the Lifeline like plans. In that light, we believe a
federal government only allows Medicaid to 90% federal share, which is the current match
cover medical services. The question of when for IT, could be sufficient.
or whether a state Medicaid program can
cover non-medical services is not novel. In 5.4.7.3.2.2 The Administration and Congress
light of the fact that medical care is not the should mandate that Medicare and the
only factor driving health outcomes, there has Veterans Health Administration provide a
been a recognition that for low-income broadband benefit to unconnected recipients
people, in particular, spending money on of the program. Medicare and VA health
medical services alone—without a insurance programs are federally
coordinated, effective strategy for addressing administered so the mechanics of offering the
a range of socio-economic issues and social broadband benefits are simpler. Congress
determinants of health—can result in and the Administration can adjust the federal
inefficient use of health care dollars. As a policy so that the programs fund broadband
result, there are numerous examples of at home for eligible beneficiaries.
government health insurance programs
funding services that, while not strictly
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 84
5.4.7.4.3. Congress should mandate that In this chapter, we have proposed significant
existing government unemployment new expenditures on broadband services and
insurance programs provide LifelineJobs on devices. We have no doubt about the
benefits. capacity of existing broadband service
providers to immediately meet the demands
Congress, as we have seen most recently in of potentially millions of new customers.
temporary enlargement of unemployment Obtaining millions of new devices quickly,
benefits in the wake of the COVID-19 crisis, however, is another issue.
has enhanced the benefits to which
unemployed persons covered by An increase in competition to obtain devices
unemployment insurance are entitled. could expand rather than close the adoption
Likewise, Congress should mandate that and affordability gaps. Indeed, as a recent
federal unemployment insurance policies New York Times story reported “A surge in
include as a benefit for persons who worldwide demand by educators for low-cost
previously were employed in a job paying less laptops has created shipment delays and
than a threshold to be set by Congress, a new pitted desperate schools against one another.
benefit for broadband at home as described Districts with deep pockets often win out.”
above. That surge of worldwide demand by
educators for low-cost laptops and similar
5.4.8. THE ETC REQUIREMENT SHOULD devices of up to 41 percent higher than pre-
BE ELIMINATED AND REPLACED WITH pandemic numbers has created months-long
MORE APPROPRIATE ELIGIBILITY shipment delays. The story further reported
CRITERIA TO ENCOURAGE MORE that those delays have “frustrated students
PARTICIPANTS. around the country, especially in rural areas
and communities of color, which also often
ETC requirements should be eliminated as lack high-speed internet access and are most
eligibility criteria for participation in the new likely to be on the losing end of the digital
program. Instead, any provider that divide… That gap, with much of the country
voluntarily offers broadband service sufficient still learning remotely, could now be
to utilize the essential services described crippling.”
above should be deemed eligible, and indeed
encouraged, to participate. In Chapter 3, we There are many factors driving the shortage of
proposed alternative and more appropriate entry-level devices. The margins on low-end
requirements for participating ISPs to be PC sales are close to zero, and with total PC
eligible for receiving funds for network sales flat or declining for a decade,
deployment, which would replace the ETC manufacturing capacity is focused on higher-
requirements. The same criteria should be end machines. Another factor is a shortage of
adopted for a permanent EBB program or low-end chips. A third factor is the logistics
Lifeline+. To ensure that beneficiaries and costs of shipping from China.
purchase services only from qualified
providers, the FCC should administer a Given the current situation, and what we
simple annual recertification process. Once believe is the need for significantly greater
the certification process is established, supply of low-cost devices, the federal
beneficiaries should be able to use their government should consider a national
benefit to purchase service from any qualified procurement RFP for what could be millions of
provider. Like other consumers, beneficiaries appropriate devices, with pre-determined
should be free to choose among qualified specifications, that could be manufactured in
providers, similar to choosing medical large part in the U.S. These would then be
services under preferred provider health offered at wholesale price to institutions, such
insurance plans. as school districts, charged with
administering the broadband benefits. This
5.4.9. TO ACCELERATE THE AVAILABILITY could not only help with accelerating the
OF, AND LOWER COST FOR, DEVICES, availability of the devices for a permanent
THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT SHOULD EBB or Lifeline+ program, but could also
CONSIDER RUNNING A PROCUREMENT lower the overall cost of the program and
PROCESS. promote job creation and advanced
manufacturing in America.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 85
5.4.10. SUPPORT RESEARCH INTO HOW
ADDRESSING CREDIT ISSUES MIGHT
CLOSE THE AFFORDABILITY GAP FOR
BROADBAND AT HOME.
While most of the recommendations in this
chapter relate to erasing affordability as a
factor in broadband adoption for essential
services, some non-qualifying households
may still experience affordability issues in
subscribing to and maintaining home
broadband service. As part of an agenda to
increase adoption, the government should
work with providers of pre-paid services to
examine the extent to which credit issues are
keeping a significant number of persons from
adopting broadband, and if so whether there
are technologies, such as a router synched to
a payment system, a financial mechanism
perhaps assisted by philanthropic efforts,
marketing efforts that make the availability of
existing options more widely known, or other
approaches that could provide a replicable
model that does for broadband at home what
prepaid wireless did to expand the adoption
of mobile services, particularly for persons not
eligible for the broadband at home programs
described in this chapter. NTIA should fund
a research program, and perhaps a
demonstration project, to determine the
dimensions of the problem and develop
potential solutions for increasing the utilization
of the prepaid model for currently
unconnected persons.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 86
Chapter 6.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
CLOSING THE
ACCESS TO
ECONOMIC
OPPORTUNITY AND
PARTICIPATION GAP
6.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Several decades ago, famed venture capitalist John Doerr said the personal computer
industry’s growth from zero to $100 billion in 10 years was “the greatest legal
accumulation of wealth in history.” As the Internet soon dwarfed the PC revolution,
growing from zero to $400 billion in just five years, Doerr was forced to update that claim.
In Doerr’s words, “There are waves and then there is a tsunami.” Today, the top five
American companies by market cap (Microsoft, Apple, Amazon, Alphabet, and
Facebook) all rode the tsunami Doerr described.
Early tech optimists touted this tsunami as American. Latinx employees are similarly
having the potential to be the great equalizer underrepresented. Moreover, as the
of society. Instead, it has exacerbated the technology sector has increased in size and
historic divisions between the haves and have profitability, Black and Latinx entrepreneurs
nots, leaving minority communities with fewer have continued to be left behind.
avenues to participate and develop economic
opportunities in the Internet economy. The If anything, the pandemic has worsened these
National Urban League’s 2018 State of Black trends. While other industries reeled from
America Report found that of almost forty lockdowns and abrupt changes in patterns of
thousand employees working for just four consumption, COVID-19 catalyzed enormous
major Silicon Valley technology companies, growth for many technology firms.8 Revenues
fewer than one thousand were Black soared as consumers and businesses turned
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 88
to digital solutions to access the basics of his employers, Thomas Edison, and
life—work (e.g., Zoom, Teams, and other Alexander Graham Bell. Yet, unfortunately
video conferencing services), social and all-too-predictably, he had no opportunity
interaction (e.g., Facebook and Twitter), to take ownership or accumulate generational
entertainment (e.g., Netflix, HBO Max, wealth from the vast businesses those
Amazon Prime Video), food (e.g., GrubHub inventions spawned.
and UberEats), goods (e.g., Amazon and
Instacart), and healthcare (e.g., Teledoc). 6.2 VISION STATEMENT
Many of these enterprises saw the ranks of
their workforce swell, even as unemployment We need to break these historic patterns. But
climbed in other sectors.9 In particular, the sad realities of today’s economic
employment among women and communities opportunity and participation gaps should not
of color plummeted in 2020. Black and Latinx discourage us from recognizing technology’s
unemployment at the end of 2020 were 9.9% essential role in building a more inclusive
and 9.3%, respectively, white employment future. Much of this Latimer Plan is devoted to
had recovered from 14.2% unemployment in making sure that broadband is available,
April 2020 to only 6.0% by December.10 affordable, and deeply relevant to the lives of
Wealth among communities of color has all Americans, regardless of where they live,
likewise diminished. Sixty percent of Black the color of their skin, or how much money
households, 72% of Latinx households, and they have. It is motivated by the idea that
55% of Native American households reported broadband is a necessity, not a convenience,
having serious financial problems during the for living in a post-pandemic world.
pandemic, compared to just 36% of white
households.11 Technology cannot be the great equalizer,
however, if opportunities for wealth
As the U.S. wrestles with another economic accumulation are not equitably distributed
recession, we must be proactive to ensure throughout society. While many of the
that Black and Latinx communities—who face proposals throughout the Plan are focused on
declining median wealth and who have still assuring that all Americans have the tools and
not recovered their pre-2008 recession skills to participate fully in 21st century society
incomes—do not continue to bear a and the digital economy, we also want to
disproportionate burden of financial hardship close gaps that limit opportunities to
in the coming years.12 participate meaningfully and create value in
the industry as broadband and broadband-
Stagnant wage growth for Black and Latinx enabled enterprises continue to innovate,
workers over the past decade is a major grow, and prosper.
reason for the slow recovery, due, in part, to
their underrepresentation in high-paying jobs We must ensure that job opportunities are
in the technology and information services available for the country’s growing Black and
sectors. And minority exclusion from the Latinx communities at every level in
technology sectors is hardly a new problem. technology and technology-related
In 2002, Blacks accounted for nearly eleven industries. Entrepreneurs of color deserve a
percent of the workforce, but only eight place in the governance of these companies.
percent of computer and mathematical jobs. They should have equal access as vendors
Those numbers remained almost the same in and collaborators in the building and
2016. While the percent of Latinx workforce utilization of new digital infrastructures and
has grown from 12.6% of the overall workforce the prolific wealth creating ecosystem that
in 2002 to 16.7% in 2016, the percent in the controls it.
computer and mathematical professions only
increased from 5.5% to 6.8%.13 Protests for racial justice across the country
have placed the onus not only on legislators
Lewis Latimer, the person for whom this Plan and government regulators, but also on
is named, illustrates the longstanding business leaders and private enterprises, to
problem of Black and Latinx participation in address with deliberateness and vigor these
the tech sector. A free Black patent-holder historic inequities. Communities of color are
and the son of slaves, his inventions and not simply hapless consumers of products
contributions were critical to the success of marketed by brand-name companies. These
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 89
communities have become emboldened and board; personnel, which includes the
now fearlessly demand corporate company’s C-suite; procurement, which
acknowledgement and respect. Americans at includes the company’s spending on goods
large are beginning to understand that we and services, and in philanthropy and
cannot continue a “business as usual” community investment.
approach to eliminating racism embedded in
our social, political, and economic systems in These voluntary commitments to civil rights
both the public and private sectors. organizations and the constituents they
represent have been widely heralded. It is,
With public and private intention, the gaps of however, cumbersome to approach hundreds
economic opportunity and participation can of companies one at a time. We are interested
be closed, and our nation will be stronger, in activating government resources and
more equitable and more prosperous leadership to organize and accelerate this
because of it. We must together attack these process, providing incentives, improving and
problems in an intentional way, rather than tracking private sector engagement and
passively awaiting the tide to lift high all boats. collaboration on diversity, equity, and
Now is a time for action. We wholeheartedly inclusion initiatives.
agree with the principles set forth by the
Business Roundtable in 2019, outlining a new Communities of color have been waiting
standard of corporate responsibility that nearly sixty years since the passage of the
benefits all stakeholders—consumers, Civil Rights Act of 1964 for corporations to
employees, suppliers, communities, and implement and abide by anti-discriminatory
shareholders. Much of the private sector has policies. But only when companies move
accepted accountability in ingraining beyond anti-discrimination principles to
diversity, equity, and inclusion into their embrace anti-racist principles can we hope to
corporate DNA, including creating racially achieve sustainable and meaningful equity.
and gender diverse corporate boards,
staffing, C-suites, procurement, philanthropy,
and community investment. 6.3 GOALS
For many years, civil rights organizations have • By the end of 2021, the Department of
put pressure on private enterprise to improve Commerce, the FCC, the Small Business
diversity, equity, and inclusion practices. Yet, Administration, and the Department of
as Marc Morial, President and CEO of the Labor should invite a broad coalition of
National Urban League, observed, “these civil rights organizations and industry
gains lacked systems and structures to stakeholders to form a task force to
ensure certain things like continued growth develop best practices, guidelines, and
and personal accountability for corporations. standards for Internet and communication
Thus, what we saw when we looked long and service providers, device and equipment
hard at the corporations with which we had manufacturers, software companies, and
worked were diversity programs that were related service providers, to promote
more often than not catch-as-catch-can more diverse and inclusive corporate
systems, that is, no systems at all. Many leadership, workforce, and supplier
treated it as a compliance issue only.”14 practices;
There has been particular progress in the • By the end of 2022, the Department of
companies that build and operate the digital Commerce, the FCC, the Small Business
infrastructure. To create more sustainable Administration, and the Department of
improvements in economic opportunity and Labor should, in cooperation with civil
participation, civil rights organizations, led by rights organizations and industry
the National Urban League, have pioneered stakeholders, publish and promote these
the adoption of written memoranda of best practices, guidelines, and standards;
understanding with several communication
companies, setting forth comprehensive
strategic plans with goals, timetables, and • By the end of 2022, the Department of
metrics to measure progress toward diversity. Commerce should publish a report
Areas covered by such MOUs include identifying policies to incentivize private
governance, which includes the company’s entities to adopt initiatives promoting more
diverse and inclusive corporate
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 90
leadership, workforce, and supplier Since Comcast entered into its MOU, supplier
practices; and spending with minority-owned enterprises
increased from less than $1 billion to almost
• By the end of 2025, the Department of $3 billion. The MOU also included a
Labor should publish a report tracking commitment for the company to offer
trends in the demographics of individuals programming owned by people of color,
employed in jobs associated with the selected through a competitive process.
digital economy, and in the governance of Today, consumers see more diverse
the companies that build, operate, and anchorpeople, programming, and channels at
utilize digital infrastructure. NBC, bringing much needed visual
representation to mainstream media. In
addition to bringing diversity into its supply
6.4 THE CURRENT SITUATION chain and programming practices, Comcast
committed to increasing the level of diversity
Working with outside multicultural civil rights on its corporate board, in its hiring practices,
organizations like the NAACP, the National and in its lauded philanthropic efforts. The
Action Network, UnidosUS, LULAC, AAJC, MOU approach, which moves beyond the ad
and OCA, the National Urban League has hoc verbal agreements of yesteryear, has
organized active external advisory boards yielded measurable progress.
and committees to advise companies in their
efforts to adopt sustainable accountability Similarly, other telecommunications providers
measures to ingrain diversity, equity, and and many of the nation’s largest companies
inclusion into their corporate DNA. These have seized this moment to reimagine
measures include commitments to racial corporate responsibility, working to address
equity in corporate board membership, historic inequities that exist in their own
staffing, the C-suite, procurement, businesses and industries. For example,
philanthropy, and community investment. AT&T recently announced that it has spent
over $3.1 billion with Black-owned suppliers
To date, these measures have yielded over the last two years.
promising results in the quality of the products
these companies produce and in the building In June of 2020, for example, PayPal pledged
of trust with the communities they serve. $530 million in short-term, medium-term, and
Since entering its MOU in 2016, Charter long-term investments to support Black and
Communications has deepened its efforts to minority-owned businesses and communities
advance diversity and inclusion (D&I), in the U.S., especially those hit hardest by the
focused on programming, procurement, pandemic.
corporate governance, workforce
representation and philanthropic and That month, PepsiCo unveiled a $450 million,
community investments. The company three-pronged plan to address systemic
subsequently adopted a holistic D&I strategy racial inequality at the community, business,
in 2018, anchored on providing high-quality and individual level through greater workforce
products and services to its diverse customer diversity, investment and procurement from
base. This includes serving 21 of the top 25 minority-owned businesses, and
Black American television markets and 20 of philanthropic contributions to racial justice
the top 25 Hispanic television markets in the social and community programs and
United States. Charter has also expanded organizations.
programming offerings, including enhanced
and expanded carriage of Black American This past September, Citi and the Citi
owned and Latinx-targeted networks. The Foundation committed over $1 billion towards
company exceeded $1 billion in diverse strategic initiatives targeted to help close the
spend in 2018, 2019 and 2020, diversified its racial wealth gap and increase economic
board, and took steps to both increase mobility in the United States, including greater
diversity in its talent pipeline and foster an access to banking and credit in communities
inclusive environment where all employees, of color, increasing investment in Black-
regardless of their background or experience, owned businesses, expanding
have equitable access to opportunities. homeownership among Black Americans,
Today, 48% of Charter’s workforce are people and advancing anti-racist practices in the
of color. financial services industry.
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6.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
These efforts, though encouraging, are only
the beginning. To close the economic
opportunity and inclusion gap, it is imperative
that industry, government, and community
organizations work together to improve and
increase commitments to racial equity in
corporate board membership, staffing, the C-
suite, procurement, philanthropy, and
community investment within the entire digital
ecosystem.
The Plan’s recommendations include:
• Infrastructure. Congress must include
mandates in any infrastructure legislation
for companies that will directly benefit
from increased federal investment to
enhance their performance in providing
access to economic opportunity and
participation throughout the digital
ecosystem.
• Measure Diversity. The Department of
Commerce, the FCC, and the Small
Business Administration should collect
information that allows the government
and the public to understand and evaluate
how the private sector, and particularly the
technology and related sectors, are
improving diversity, equity, and inclusion
in the categories noted above.
• Incentivize Diversity. The Department of
Commerce, the FCC, and the Small
Business Administration should evaluate
and report to Congress annually on
measures to incentivize the participation
of private enterprises in improving
diversity, equity, and inclusion throughout
the digital ecosystem.
• Highlight Sustainable Success. The
Department of Commerce, the FCC, and
the Small Business Administration should
publish an annual report on best practices
for enhancing the performance of private
enterprise in improving diversity, equity
and inclusion throughout the digital
ecosystem.
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Chapter 7.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
CLOSING THE
UTILIZATION GAP
In the more than two decades since then NTIA Administrator Larry Irving coined the
phrase “digital divide,” nearly all the public discussion of both meaning and the
consequence of the idea has involved either the availability gap, the adoption gap, or
the affordability gap. Often, the terms are used interchangeably, or combined
unhelpfully and referred to simply as a lack of “access.”
To be sure, all three of these gaps are industries and in the public sector, particularly
foundational. Unless there are networks for applications identified by the National
everywhere and everyone is on them and can Broadband Plan as strategic. In particular, as
afford to use them, failings of digital equity many commentators have noted, government
and inclusion will persist, creating more services have not digitized fast enough. Nor
inequality and exclusion. As noted in Chapter have government service providers taken full
One, a recent Executive Order calls for every advantage of the availability of broadband to
federal agency to assure that all persons, but improve customer service, capacity,
particularly those in historically marginalized resiliency, adaptability, transparency, or
communities, have equal access to the security.
benefits and services those agencies provide.
Given the trends in how services are now The COVID-19 crisis has not only brought the
delivered, it will be difficult to achieve such a availability, adoption, and affordability gaps to
goal without closing the gaps discussed in the the forefront, it has also demonstrated that,
Plan. despite the capacity and capability of our
networks, we are suffering from a utilization
But there is another, less obvious gap that is diffusion lag, similar to that which
increasingly relevant to how we use the tools accompanied electrification in the 1900s.
of the information age to create a more Learnings from this unprecedented
equitable and inclusive economy and society. experience, however, could illuminate a better
That is the utilization gap. path forward. As author Nassim Taleb wrote
in his book Antifragile, “The excess energy
That utilization gap describes the difference released from overreaction to setbacks is
between how our communications networks what innovates.” This crisis is likely to unleash
are being used today and how they could that kind of innovation, particularly with
already be used to improve outcomes across telehealth, telecommuting, online education,
and public services.
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But we need to make sure that, in the process, Even with everyone on-line, we need our
this next wave of innovation also drives a more government institutions to improve their online
equitable and inclusive economy and society. services, and offer solutions on par with the
best private sector actors, where competition
Yes, we need all unemployed persons on-line drives continuous innovation. But, as
to be able to train, search and apply for jobs. discussed in Chapter 12 on government
But, as discussed in Chapter Eight on services, we also need service providers to
workforce development, we also need to be make it easier for all persons, but particularly
smarter about how we develop online training, those from low-income households and
particularly in tying such training to communities of color, to understand and
apprenticeship programs and orienting such benefit from the full range of available
programs to attract persons from information and benefits, and to interact with
communities of color. those services, such as in making or receiving
payments, and in enabling non-government
Yes, we need all persons on-line to be able to organizations to assist Americans in receiving
take advantage of the improved outcomes the help they need using government data.
and lower costs of telehealth, but we also
need, as discussed in Chapter Nine on health Even with everyone on-line, the Internet
care, to take steps so that telehealth will ecosystem will not reach its full potential
reduce disparities in access to care, quality of unless it becomes a healthy, self-sustaining
care and patient experience, including by environment, with effective mechanisms for
enhancing digital health literacy among low- quickly identifying and countering dangerous
income persons and persons of color, and misinformation and toxic behavior. As
disseminating evidence-based research on discussed in Chapter 13, we can do so by
improving care equity for communities of reducing the amount, and negative impact, of
color. dangerous misinformation and hate speech
on the Internet, increasing the amount of
Yes, we need all students on-line to be able to content that addresses the concerns and
engage in virtual classes and educational needs of low-income communities and
work outside the classroom, but we also need, communities of color, promoting authoritative
as discussed in Chapters Ten and Eleven on information relevant to these communities,
K-12 and Higher Education, equitable access and improving the tools available for low-
to the tools and content of digital learning, to income persons and persons of color to
assist students wherever they are engage in civic discussions, giving them a
developmentally and personally, accelerating stronger voice both offline and online.
and supporting them to learn in ways that
represent their diverse needs, and at a depth In short, even as we close the availability,
of mastery that is required to succeed in the adoption, and affordability gaps, we need to
modern economic and social context. We address the utilization gap as well. The
also need to provide teachers with the remaining chapters propose ways to do so.
support they need to enable students to
maximize the use of digital content, and allow
them to foster a future where the vast expanse
of opportunities available are truly open to all
students. We face a huge challenge in
helping students overcome the damage to
their education done by COVID-19, but, as
McKinsey reports, there are ways, many
dependent on better utilization of technology,
to reduce that learning loss.
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Chapter 8.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
WORKFORCE
DEVELOPMENT
8.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Closing the gaps in broadband availability and adoption will provide an essential
foundation for equity and inclusion. But to fully use the Internet ecosystem to improve
economic and social prospects for persons from communities of color and low-income
communities, we must go beyond those steps. Not enough is currently being done to
ensure that the tools of the Information Age facilitate greater opportunities for our nation’s
labor force. These tools have enormous potential to bridge workforce gaps by:
• Connecting the unemployed with companies and industries that have unfilled
positions;
• Enabling workers in every job type and industry to upgrade their skills and to
search and apply for jobs; and
• Ensuring that new and small businesses can use available tools from both public
and private sources to improve their prospects, spurring further opportunities and
growth in and for low-income communities and communities of color.
Today, U.S. industry and policymakers do not particularly given the drop-off in employer-
adequately use data to identify in-demand based training investments over the past two
jobs, particularly jobs aligned with the skills decades.
needed to fill them; provide easy access to
online programs to help people develop the Broadband can be the major driver for
skills these positions require; or provide low- solutions to these problems. Through federal,
or no-cost cost certifications or other job- state, private, and public sector action, we
seeking tools to help those who develop new can create and improve programs that
skills pursue new jobs. Policymakers also do facilitate online access to general workforce
not adequately fund research or other means development, training, skills building,
to help persons holding jobs with a high risk Registered Apprenticeships, and specific
of being eliminated, such as jobs with workforce development in critical and
repetitive manual tasks, to develop the skills growing fields of such as health care,
needed to qualify for the jobs of the future, technology, and transportation.
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8.2. VISION new state-based workforce development
and digital skills training programs during
2021.
We envision a fully connected nation where,
through federal, state, public, private, and
hybrid initiatives, everyone has access to the • Conduct ongoing outcomes-focused data
tools and resources necessary to upskill, collection, data aggregation, and
reskill, and earn certifications to fill workforce research on workforce trends, federal,
gaps. These programs will provide new, private, and nonprofit workforce
small, and industry-leading businesses with development programs, public-private
access to a larger talent pool of trained, partnerships, and programmatic impacts
capable, skilled workers, enabling and successes, with a particular focus on
businesses to fill positions more quickly and reporting training outcomes by race,
cost-effectively. Taken together, these analyses of best practices, and the
actions will lead to new and increased development of best practices toolkits for
investment in at-risk communities, as replicating successful programs, with a
businesses and their employees flourish. new report released by the end of 2021.
• Use impact studies to implement
8.3. GOALS widespread programmatic and rule
changes that increase the effectiveness
We must first better understand where the and impact of existing federal agency
greatest workforce gaps and disparities exist, programs, such as DOL, SBA, and EDA
and then use this information to develop workforce initiatives, by the end of 2022.
models, best practices, and toolkits, improve
existing programs, and create new programs. 8.3.2. PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT AND
As noted in Chapter 3, efforts are underway to IMPACT GOALS.
close the broadband availability gap. With
new Congressional funding, the FCC is in the
process of addressing the inaccurate and • Adopt the Lifeline+ program proposed in
incomplete broadband mapping which has Chapter 5, which includes LifelineJobs, a
resulted in uncertainty about which areas service that would support the
need buildout and what the costs associated unemployed through a broadband
with fully connecting everyone will be. subsidy provided as part of
unemployment benefits, empowering the
unemployed to use online programs to
Similarly, accurate data is necessary to upgrade their skills, as well as search and
address and fix workforce gaps. Here, we apply for jobs.
propose a two-pronged approach, where
targeted research and data are first gathered,
and then used to create effective programs, • Use aggregated data to develop best
initiatives, and federal legislation that will practices and toolkits to aid federal, state,
provide funding to help address workforce municipal, public, and private entities in
utilization gaps in the most efficient manner. the creation, development, scaling, and
expansion of new and existing workforce
The specific goals in achieving this vision are: development programs by 2021.
8.3.1. DATA COLLECTION AND • Deploy at least three new national and ten
RESEARCH GOALS. new state workforce development and
digital skills training pilot programs by
• Increase funding support, through federal 2022, with planned expansion to other
agencies and Congressional legislation, states by 2025.
for new research, data collection, and
data aggregation on workforce trends, • Increase enrollment and diversity in state
and impacts and successes in various and nationwide upskilling, workforce
sectors. Data should particularly focus on readiness, workforce development, digital
race, economic status, and rural versus skills, and other training programs by
urban areas, with the goal of aiding in the 2023, redesigning programs and
creation, capacity-building, and scaling of prioritizing programmatic changes around
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new, diversity-focused data, setting goals potential employees. Meanwhile, increases in
and benchmarks, and implementing the availability and utilization of online tools to
diversity and inclusion training. upskill, search, and apply for jobs underscore
the importance of broadband connectivity as
• Identify, develop, test, and deploy an essential means of closing the workforce
applications of digital technologies that gap quickly and efficiently.
could foster economic and social mobility.
America already is shifting to online
environments for higher education. Training
• Develop optional online components to in- institutes, community colleges, and
person Related Technical Instruction universities now offer a wide range of online
required for Registered Apprenticeship certifications and degrees, enabling students
certification, and all other Registered to learn from anywhere. The Best Colleges
Apprenticeship-related trainings that do 2020 Online Education Trends Report finds
not require a hands-on component.15 that 77% of online students enroll in these
programs to help them reach career and
• Develop online components for local employment goals, while 71% of institutions
career centers and other workforce- decide to offer a new online program primarily
related community services, including based on perceived demand from employers,
American Job Centers under the U.S. and 94% of students of online learning
Department of Labor, to supplement their programs say their programs have a positive
in-person training programs and other return on investment. Demand for online
offerings, which are largely unavailable at programs continues to be high, with 99% of
present due to the COVID-19 pandemic. administrators saying they saw an increase
last year or that demand has stayed the same
8.4. THE CURRENT SITUATION: in the past few years.18
UNDERSTANDING THE Job searches, too, are increasingly performed
online. National and global job search and
WORKFORCE GAP recruiting sites host millions of job postings
and visitors every month, with about 60% of
The United States is currently experiencing job seekers using online job boards to search
high unemployment, but it is, ironically, also for new employment opportunities.19 For
experiencing significant and growing unmet example, online job search platform
demand for labor. By Deloitte Insights’ Glassdoor has over 9 million jobs listed and
estimate, as many as half of all open jobs 50 million unique visitors each month.20 Job
could go unfilled in certain industries in search platform Indeed reports over 250
2028.16 For now, millions remain out of work as million monthly visitors and about 10 jobs
a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, including added per second globally.21 LinkedIn, the
workers from sectors that could take five or social network for professionals, is currently
more years to recover, if they fully recover at the 57th highest ranked website in the world in
all.17 This phenomenon is known as the terms of global engagement, with over 722
“workforce gap,” where some industries, million members as of Q3 2020.22 LinkedIn,
sectors, and occupations face a dearth of too, has seen steady increases in quarterly
qualified workers to fill vacancies, but where usage, with increases ranging from 22% to
the existing unemployed labor force lacks the 31% from Q1 2020 to Q1 2021.23 Job seekers
skills needed to fill them. also apply for jobs through these tools, with
online listing services boards accounting for
To fill the skills and workforce gaps, it is almost half of job applications in 2018.24
necessary for us to grow, scale, and
modernize our national and state workforce These trends coincide with a widespread shift
training programs—yet we are severely of company recruitment and application
underutilizing broadband, arguably the most processes to Internet-based platforms and
powerful tool at our disposal, as a solution to services. The next logical step is to
train our labor force. Traditional approaches modernize our nation’s workforce
to filling the skills and workforce gaps do not development programs, including Registered
scale well, and they are unlikely to fully bridge Apprenticeship Programs and American Job
the gap between potential employers and Centers, by shifting them online. Currently,
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federal, state, and local training programs still contributions to GDP.26 Other hard-hit sectors
require an upgrade of their online could take two to three years to recover,
components, and brick-and-mortar career including administrative and other support
centers are largely closed for the duration of services and construction.
the COVID-19 pandemic.
As a result, millions of people are out of work
The national shift to more online opportunities in occupations that are not expected to
for job searches, applications, and training recover any time soon, yet lack the skills
programs will expand more opportunities to needed to qualify for occupations in sectors
more people, but it also is likely to isolate and that are growing or need to replace their
exclude the digitally disconnected from retiring workforce.
opportunities for advancement and economic
empowerment. Achieving digital equity and 8.4.2. STATE AND NATIONAL INITIATIVES
inclusion is increasingly vital for connecting IN FACILITATING JOB REENTRY,
unemployed and underemployed populations UPSKILLING, AND WORKFORCE
to workforce development and job search DEVELOPMENT.
opportunities, particularly communities of
color, low-income, and rural communities—all Federal, state, and local authorities have long
of which are facing long-term unemployment worked to bridge workforce gaps through
in jobs and industries that are shrinking due to programs that connect the unemployed with
the combination of natural market shifts and the skills they need to fill available jobs.
the COVID-19 pandemic. A top priority, Federal and state action has shifted in 2020 to
therefore, is to ensure the unemployed have address increasing unemployment resulting
access to the Internet, and that upskilling, from the COVID-19 pandemic, of course, but
certification, and training programs are easily many of the Congressional and administrative
available online. efforts are temporary, with most measures
already having expired or due to expire by the
8.4.1. SECTORS HARDEST HIT BY COVID- end of the year. States are slowly rolling out a
19 PANDEMIC. patchwork of solutions for their populations.
In-person workforce development programs
Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the United also are largely out of reach as social
States already faced a workforce gap. In distancing measures are in effect for the
some traditional industries such as foreseeable future. Facilities remain closed,
construction and manufacturing, Baby and many programs are unavailable online,
Boomers are retiring without enough skilled rendering most services inaccessible for the
workers to replace them.25 In new and unemployed people who need them most
evolving industries, such as the information urgently.
and communications technology (ICT) sector,
new jobs are being created that require None of the Congressional directives or
specialized skills and training. The global federal programs, such as the Workforce
economic impact of COVID-19 has Innovation Opportunity Act, Work Opportunity
exacerbated these issues, forcing businesses Tax Credit, Registered Apprenticeship
to cut back or shutter altogether, while also Programs, Career One-Stops, or other
fostering new development in other areas programs outlined below,27 has any
such as broadband deployment and requirements to include online training
increased demand for online services from components.28 In fact, many government
technology companies. training programs lack sufficient virtual
support, have antiquated websites and online
According to a McKinsey & Company tools, and consist of resources and training
analysis, “If the economic recovery from centers that are largely unavailable online.29
COVID-19 is muted … some industries will With the majority of in-person programs and
take years to get back to their pre-pandemic services temporarily suspended or closed,
normal.” Industries including arts, this poses a tremendous barrier to addressing
entertainment, and recreation, hospitality, and emergency needs, let alone the longer-term
food services, educational services, goal of upskilling America’s workforce.
transportation and warehousing, travel and
tourism, and manufacturing, could take five 8.4.2.1. Pre-COVID-19 Efforts.
years or more to get back to 2019-level
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Registered Apprenticeship Programs. The American Job Centers and Career One-
U.S. Department of Labor is working to meet Stops. The Workforce Investment Act,
the shifting demand for labor through adopted in 1998 and superseded in 2014 by
Registered Apprenticeship Programs (RAPs), WIOA, established the American Job Centers
a formalized, government-credentialed (AJCs) system to provide job seekers and
approach that prepares workers for jobs employers streamlined access to an array of
using an employer-driven, “earn-while-you- education, training, and employment
learn” model. This model was formalized in services.35 WIOA emphasizes the importance
1937, when U.S. leaders recognized the of integrated intake, case management,
benefits of apprenticeships for individuals reporting systems, and fiscal and
and industry, and passed the National management accountability systems.
Apprenticeship Act. Services are delivered via a national network
of One-Stop centers (sometimes branded as
Today, there are more than 23,000 RAPs CareerOneStops). Each local area must have
across the nation,30 covering over 1,000 at least one comprehensive One-Stop center
occupations across industries that include that provides access to the services of all
information technology, health care, associated partners.
cybersecurity, energy, advanced
manufacturing, construction, engineering, In 2016, the U.S. Department of Labor
hospitality, transportation, and financial Employment and Training Administration
services.31 The U.S. DOL has trained more (ETA), in coordination with the Department of
than 812,000 new apprentices since 2017, Education, established the American Job
with an average starting salary of $70,000 and Center network under WIOA. WIOA Section
a lifetime earning potential of over $300,000 121(e)(4) requires each one-stop delivery
more than their peers. RAPs include system to include in the identification of
structured on-the-job training and classroom- products, programs, activities, services,
based Related Technical Instruction. The facilities, and related property and materials,
COVID-19 pandemic, however, has caused a common one-stop delivery system identifier,
significant disruption to education and in addition to using any state- or locally
training systems nationwide. The Department developed identifier.
of Labor’s Employment and Training
Administration has recognized COVID-19’s Today, there are over 2,548 AJCs nationwide,
potential impact on RAPs, which require an but the majority are listed as “closed to the
individual to be employed while in the public; available by phone and email,”
program.32 “operating at limited capacity to ensure social
distancing due to COVID-19,” or “closed until
Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act. In further notice due to COVID-19 health
2014, Congress passed the Workforce concerns.”36 While the AJCs are largely
Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA), closed, the CareerOneStop does offer a set of
which replaced the 1998 Workforce mobile apps for job seekers, including Find an
Investment Act (WIA), as the primary federal American Job Center, Find a Job, Veterans
legislation that supports workforce Job Search, Salary Finder, Training Finder,
development.33 WIOA covers several areas, and Unemployment Insurance.37 The app is
including workforce development activities, useful for research on jobs, industry, and
adult education and literacy, and wage trends, as well as providing information
amendments to the Wagner-Peyser Act of such as where to find local training programs
1933 and Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which for specific jobs. The app, however, remains
provide employment support for jobs seekers. difficult to navigate, and offers no information
The WIOA authorizes job training and related specifically targeting virtual training
services to unemployed or underemployed programs.
individuals and establishes a governance and
performance accountability system for WIOA. National Association of State Workforce
Additionally, the WIOA system provides Agencies (NASWA). The National Association
central points of service through its system of of State Workforce Agencies (NASWA) is the
about 3,000 One-Stop Centers nationwide. national organization representing all 50 state
Services include state and local WIOA workforce agencies, as well as those in D.C.
employment and training activities, as well as and U.S. territories. These agencies deliver
partner programs.34 training, employment, career, and business
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services, in addition to administering communities that have been designated as
unemployment insurance, veteran Qualified Opportunity Zones (QOZ).43 QOZs
reemployment, and labor market information are designed to spur economic development
programs. NASWA provides policy expertise, by providing tax incentives for investors who
shares promising state practices, and supply new capital to businesses operating in
promotes state innovation and leadership in one or more QOZs. While the program is still
workforce development.38 maturing, it has faced some criticism, and
progress stalled as a result of the COVID-19
In March 2020, NASWA released the first pandemic. An Urban Institute report found
annual State of the Workforce Report, a first- that “although OZs were designed to spur job
of-its-kind compilation of data from the creation, the vast majority of capital appears
nation’s state workforce agencies into one to be flowing into real estate, not into
comprehensive report, showcasing key operating businesses, because of various
innovations from across the country that are program design constraints and the
enhancing the nation’s workforce.39The report undesirability of selling equity from both the
also presents a workforce profile for each business owners’ and the investors’
state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto perspective.”44 The Brookings Institution has
Rico, highlighting labor force data such as called it a “tax cut for gentrification.”45 Further,
unemployment rates and wage growth, waivers allowing benefits to flow into zip
educational attainment data, key workforce codes adjacent to the originally-targeted zip
industries, programs and services within each codes have had the effect of subsidizing
state’s Department of Labor, total individuals luxury apartments and office buildings in
served, unemployment data, number of local wealthy zip codes.46
American Job Centers, and state workforce
innovations such as apprenticeship programs Municipal Efforts and Public-Private
and prisoner reentry initiatives. Partnerships. Public-private partnerships
have been used across the country to build
Work Opportunity Tax Credit. The Work programs that benefit communities, provide
Opportunity Tax Credit (WOTC) is a federal jobs, and stimulate economic development.
tax credit jointly administered by the U.S. DOL For example, in 2015, Seattle created a
and U.S. Department of Treasury through the Priority Hire program for city public works
Internal Revenue Service (IRS). WOTC is construction projects of $5 million or more,
available to employers for hiring individuals and, in 2017, expanded the program to
from certain targeted groups who have public/private partnership projects with
consistently faced significant barriers to significant city investment. Using city-funded
employment. WOTC-targeted groups and public/private partnership projects, the
include: (1) qualified Temporary Assistance Priority Hire Program prioritizes the hiring of
for Needy Families (TANF) recipients;40 (2) residents that live in economically distressed
qualified veterans; (3) qualified ex-felons; (4) areas, particularly in Seattle and King County.
designated community residents; (5) In addition, city projects and public/private
vocational rehabilitation referrals; (6) SNAP partnership projects have apprentice
benefits (food stamps) recipients; (7) utilization requirements and aspirational goals
Supplemental Security Income (SSI) for women and people of color.47
recipients; (8) long-term family assistance
recipients; and (9) qualified long-term 8.4.2.2. Post-COVID-19 Efforts.
unemployment recipients.41 Employers
receive a tax credit for $2,400 to $9,600 per There are numerous state and national efforts
year, per employee. The WOTC was that have arisen in response to the severe
authorized until December 31, 2020, and is unemployment and economic downturn
generally renewed annually, although some resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic.
lapses have occurred before the credit was Congress quickly passed legislation
retroactively reauthorized.42 appropriating stimulus funding and extending
unemployment benefits, and has extended
Opportunity Zones. In December 2017, the benefits and created new waivers of taxes on
Tax Cuts and Jobs Act created the unemployment benefits through the American
Opportunity Zone program, designed to Rescue Plan. Industry, state, municipal, and
provide tax incentives to companies for nonprofit efforts have filled some gaps, but
investing in economically distressed many remain.
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CARES Act Unemployment Insurance. In to over 100 industry certifications, and will
response to the COVID-19 pandemic, provide career coaching through the
Congress has taken various actions, in the workforce boards.49
CARES Act and in the American Rescue Plan,
to authorizes states to provide additional In 2015, Seattle created a Priority Hire
weeks of federally funded Pandemic program for city public works construction
Emergency Unemployment Compensation projects of $5 million or more and, in 2017,
(PEUC) benefits to people who exhaust their expanded the program to public/private
regular state benefits, followed by additional partnership projects with significant city
weeks of federally funded extended benefits investment. Using city-funded and
(EB) in states with high unemployment. public/private partnership projects, the
Priority Hire Program prioritizes the hiring of
Examples of State, Industry, and Nonprofit residents that live in economically distressed
Virtual Training Initiatives. The pandemic has areas, particularly in Seattle and King County.
led to several innovative efforts to provide job In addition, city projects and public/private
training using broadband. In Maine, the partnership projects have apprentice
Governor signed an executive order that utilization requirements and aspirational goals
provided flexibility to the Maine Community for women and people of color.50
College System to quickly expand online
training offered by the Maine Quality Centers Each of these initiatives can serve as a model
(MQC) Program, in response to workforce to other states, federal agencies, and the
demands and economic effects of COVID-19. private sector in developing and expanding
MQCs are working closely with workforce programs to help train displaced workers in
training professionals at all seven of Maine’s industries that have not been as significantly
community colleges across the state to impacted or which may be experiencing labor
develop and implement free online training shortages as a result of COVID-19.
programs. MQC is coordinating its efforts
with the state’s Department of Labor and other Private companies are also responding to the
workforce agencies for the recruitment and emergency. Microsoft is launching a global
screening of participants for the new online skills initiative aimed at bringing more digital
programs.48 skills to 25 million people worldwide by the
end of the year. This initiative will combine
In Connecticut, Governor Ned Lamont existing and new resources from Microsoft, as
launched the SkillUp CT program, a well as subsidiaries including LinkedIn and
statewide, free online job training program for GitHub. It will be grounded in three areas of
unemployment claimants, including those activity: (1) the use of data to identify in-
who have been impacted by the economic demand jobs and the skills needed to fill them;
fallout of the COVID-19 public health crisis. (2) free access to learning paths and content
The program, coordinated by the Connecticut to help people develop the skills these
Workforce Development Council (CWDC) in positions require; and (3) low-cost
collaboration with the Connecticut Governor’s certifications and free job-seeking tools to
Workforce Council (GWC) and the help people who develop these skills pursue
Connecticut Department of Labor (CTDOL), new jobs.51
significantly expands access to
comprehensive online course work from Comcast has launched the Comcast RISE
Metrix Learning, a global provider of web- (Representation, Investment, Strength, and
based learning management systems, for Empowerment) program to provide support
thousands of Connecticut residents. Eligible for businesses owned by Black Americans,
Connecticut residents receive email Indigenous Americans, and People of Color.52
instructions on obtaining a license to access Qualified small businesses can receive one or
the Metrix Learning program, which provides more of several services through Effectv, the
access to about 5,000 online Skillsoft courses advertising sales division of Comcast, and
in areas such as information technology, Comcast Business. These include local
business analysis, customer service, project marketing consulting, a 90-day TV media
management, and digital literacy, among campaign, a 30-second TV commercial, a
others. The courses are available to anyone “technology makeover” including computer
with an Internet connection and a computer. equipment and Internet, voice and
SkillUp CT also offers training tracks leading cybersecurity services for up to a 12-month,
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 103
and grants of up to $10,000 for businesses is complicated by several factors. As
that have been in operations for three to five discussed in prior chapters, millions of
years. Americans lack any available options for
broadband service. More have access to
Several organizations and companies, broadband but cannot or choose not to
including Charter Communications, Focus on subscribe. For those who are not online,
Rural America, Family Business Coalition, brick-and-mortar government services
Natural Rural Education Association, League designed to assist individuals with signing up
of Rural Voters, and Schools, Health & for unemployment benefits or with workforce
Libraries Coalition, have partnered to create development programs are only open in
the Connect the Future coalition, focused on limited capacity or closed for the foreseeable
quickly connecting millions of unconnected future.54 Additional workforce development
Americans to high-speed Internet. The programs, such as the Registered
coalition plans to “shine a light on the barriers Apprenticeship Programs, offered through
to Internet access, show the solutions to industry and the U.S. Department of Labor,
expand access to more homes and include on-the-job learning and Related
businesses, and shift the national Technical Instruction components that are not
conversation to enact those solutions— available online.55
soon.”53
The combination of these factors has had a
CompTIA (the Computing Technology significant impact on the overall U.S.
Industry Association) is responding to COVID- unemployment rate, with a predictably
19 by conducting live, virtual training for outsized impact on communities of color.
unemployed and underemployed during the According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
crisis. CompTIA also provides WIOA- the national unemployment rate for Q3 2020 is
approved training programs. 8.9%, compared with 3.7% for Q3 2019.56 The
unemployment rate for whites is somewhat
8.4.3. THE WORKFORCE GAP AND lower at 7.9%, while the rate is several
COVID-19’S IMPACT ON PEOPLE OF percentage points higher for Black Americans
COLOR, LOW-INCOME, AND RURAL and Latinxs at 13.2% and 11.2%,
COMMUNITIES. respectively. Further, Black Americans and
Latinxs are disproportionately represented in
Despite these and other programs available many of the hardest-hit sectors and
across the nation, closing the workforce gap subsectors, as shown in Figure 1.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 104
FIGURE 1
HARDEST-HIT SECTORS AND SUBSECTORS DISPROPORTIONATELY
REPRESENTED BY BLACK AMERICANS AND LATINXS
35%
30%
30.4%
27.0%
25%
24.0%
22.0%
20% 20.8%
20.1%
15%
13.9%
13.1%
12.0%
10%
5% 6.4%
0%
Leisure and Accommodation Transportation and Administrative and Construction
Hospitality and Food Services Warehousing Other Support
Services
African American Hispanic African American Population Hispanic Population
Hardest-Hit Sectors and Subsectors Disproportionately Represented by Black Americans and
Latinxs Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 2019 “Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population
Survey” and McKinsey Global Institute “COVID-19 in Hardest-Hit Sectors” analysis
Communities of color and other marginalized These groups also disproportionately work in
groups, such as low-income and rural sectors that lack the ability to work remotely,
communities, are further harmed by the such as hospitality, food service, and
disproportionate impact of the COVID-19 transportation, and have consequently been
pandemic itself. According to the Centers for hit hardest by COVID-19-related layoffs. For
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), these populations, leaving their homes to
people of color are at increased risk of getting work or seek employment puts them at much
sick and dying from COVID-19 due to greater risk of contracting, falling seriously ill,
“[inequities] in the social determinants of and dying from COVID-19. Further, these
health, such as poverty and health care populations are relatively lower-income and
access, [which] are interrelated and influence face significant financial hardship from the
a wide range of health and quality-of-life inability to work, hardships from which they
outcomes and risks,” as well as “higher rates are relatively ill-positioned to recover.
of some medical conditions that increase
one’s risk of severe illness from COVID-19.”57 In this environment, it is essential that these
Further, “community strategies to slow the groups have the tools and resources they
spread of COVID-19 may cause unintentional need to reskill through virtual online training
harm, such as lost wages, reduced access to programs. Unfortunately, while numerous
services, and increased stress, for some programs and initiatives exist, they are largely
racial and ethnic minority groups.”58 unavailable online.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 105
8.4.4. IMPACT OF BROADBAND (national security, health, energy, space,
ADOPTION ON WORKFORCE basic science), but not others (education,
DEVELOPMENT. workforce development, economic and
social mobility, racial disparities).
Persons out of work indefinitely should have Agencies such as HUD, Education, Labor,
the opportunity to enter workforce and the human service components of
development programs and reskill. However, HHS have little or no capacity to engage
as outlined above, many workforce programs with researchers and entrepreneurs to
and local job centers are currently closed, develop and deploy breakthrough
operating at limited capacity, available by applications of technology that would
appointment only, or only available by phone advance equity and inclusion.61
or email.59 In cases where opportunities are
available virtually, access to online training is • Existing Workforce Development
difficult or impossible without home Programs Largely Lack Virtual Service
broadband access and without overcoming and Training Support. Existing programs
digital literacy barriers. such as Registered Apprenticeship
Programs, Career One-Stops, and other
As discussed in Chapter 4, Black Americans, offerings with classroom instruction
Latinxs, and Tribal groups historically have components and brick-and-mortar service
adopted broadband at lower rates compared locations are largely paused, closed, or
to white Americans. Rural and low-income open with limited capacity in the wake of
Americans face similar discrepancies. These COVID-19.62 Prior to (and following) the
factors lead to a perpetuating cycle: without pandemic, traveling to these locations
access to meaningful employment, placed burdens on low-income and other
households cannot afford broadband, and disadvantaged groups that needed
without broadband, they cannot upskill or additional supportive services such as
search for jobs, training programs, and other transportation and childcare.63 Virtual
opportunities. By establishing online support and training programs would
workforce development and training significantly improve ease of access for
programs, federal and state governments can the groups that need them most.
close the broadband utilization gap, connect
underrepresented groups to employment • Social Spending Not Currently Organized
opportunities, and achieve digital equity and to Support the Development of Tech-
inclusion. Enabled Interventions. Currently, funding
for workforce-related and other social
8.5. KEY CHALLENGES TO spending is generally provided through a
block grant or a formula grant, based on
OVERCOME several factors relating to local
unemployment figures, to the states.
The key challenges to overcome to close the While there are policy rationales for
broadband utilization gap through workforce allocating funds in this way, it runs counter
development in the United States include: to key features of most technology-driven
applications, which are characterized by
• Data Gaps. More data is necessary to high fixed start-up costs and very low
identify, predict, and fill workforce gaps. marginal costs to train each additional
Additionally, few training programs report participant. Under existing formulae for
outcomes by race.60 These data can have WIOA funding, for example, state funding
numerous applications, including allotment can only increase to 130% of
improving existing programs, building out prior-year budgets,64 which is not enough
and expanding successful programs, and to incentivize states to invest in the
developing best practices and standards development of tech-enabled solutions
from existing programs. that scale nationally.
• Low Federal Investment Where Needed. • Digital Literacy Gaps. Despite strides to
The federal government makes significant close the broadband availability,
investments to harness science and adoption, and affordability gaps, as well
technology to achieve some goals as changing perceptions of the
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 106
opportunities afforded by broadband use, growing and shrinking sectors, and other
many Americans still lack the digital measures of programmatic impact and
literacy skills necessary to take advantage success. The data, when gathered, should
of online offerings, as discussed in greater be used by Congress and federal agencies to
detail in Chapter Four. develop and promote best practices,
guidelines, and standards to build new
8.6. RECOMMENDATIONS programs, improve existing programs, and
standardize virtual learning components.
8.6.1. WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT- To this end, Congress should pass legislation
RELATED RECOMMENDATIONS IN OTHER directing the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the
CHAPTERS. Department of Labor, and the Small Business
Administration to collect and apply this data.
There are several workforce-related These agencies should work with State
recommendations in other chapters that we Workforce Agencies, through the National
cross-reference here. These include: Association of State Workforce Agencies, to
aggregate state-level data, and determine the
• Creating a workforce of “Digital factors that make up the most successful
Navigators” to assist individuals and small programs, particularly when it comes to
businesses, particularly in communities of diversity and job placement.
color and low-income communities, with
obtaining digital readiness and literacy 8.6.3. CONGRESS SHOULD INCENTIVIZE
skills, as discussed in Chapter 4; COMPANIES, STATES, MUNICIPALITIES,
NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS, AND
HYBRID ENTITIES TO CREATE, BUILD
• Creating a broadband benefit for
CAPACITY, AND SCALE NEW
unemployed persons so that they can get
and stay online to train, search, and apply WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT AND
for jobs, as discussed in Chapter 5; DIGITAL SKILLS TRAINING PROGRAMS.
Armed with the data collected by the BLS,
• Creating a workforce of on-line tutors to DOL, and SBA, Congress can assess the
focus on improving basic reading and funding needs and requirements for
math skills, particularly for students in successful national, state, and local
communities of color and low-income programs. Congress should use these data
communities, as discussed in Chapter 10; and recommendations to pass legislation that
and increases investment in innovation, including
implementing virtual training tools to new and
• Engaging in research relating to using AI existing programs, as well as scaling up
for job training, as discussed in Chapter existing programs.
11.
8.6.3.1. Congress should appropriate
8.6.2. CONGRESS SHOULD DIRECT funding for the U.S. Department of Labor to
FEDERAL AGENCIES TO INCREASE DATA dramatically scale up Registered
COLLECTION RELATED TO WORKFORCE Apprenticeship Programs.
DEVELOPMENT.
The U.S. Department of Labor invests $200
Congress should direct federal agencies to million per year in Registered Apprenticeship
increase data collection, data aggregation, Programs. This represents just 2.1% of the
and research on workforce development agency’s $9.4 billion discretionary budget
program trends and programmatic impacts authority.65 Congress should increase the
and successes, with a particular focus on amount it appropriates to apprenticeship
reporting training program outcomes by race. programs. This increased investment would
allow the U.S. Department of Labor to vastly
We also need to aggregate data on national, expand its efforts to improve and modernize
state, municipal, and public-private hybrid training programs; increase apprenticeship
workforce programs, focusing on diversity, opportunities through partnerships between
placement, virtual training elements, the companies, community colleges, technical
prevalence and impact of such programs in schools, universities, nonprofit organizations,
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states, municipalities, and other entities; and Under the Workforce Innovation and
add new, 21st-century components to its Opportunity Act of 2014, the federal
Registered Apprenticeship Programs, government distributes funding to states for
including robust online training support. six core programs, including the U.S.
Department of Labor’s Adult Services,
8.6.3.2. Congress should direct the U.S. Dislocated Workers, and Youth Services
Department of Labor to institute new sectoral programs (for employment and training
training programs. activities, including the American Job Center
and Career One-Stop systems); Wagner-
Congress should establish new sectoral Peyser programs (employment services for
training programs to align training with local job seekers); and the U.S. Department of
job markets, leverage the community college Education’s Division of Adult Education and
system, and, by designing training based on Literacy (for basic skills) and its rehabilitation
an entire sector, ensure that workers gain services programs (for employment services
skills that are transferable across employers. for individuals with disabilities). In 2017, the
This model already exists in several states federal government distributed over $7 billion
and cities, with studies finding that in funding under WIOA. Congress should
participants in sectoral programs earned 18% direct WIOA to include funding earmarked to
more than control group participants and develop and implement virtual training
were more likely to work in jobs that offered components for each of its core programs.
benefits such as health insurance or paid
leave, among other results.66 Sectoral training In addition, the Department of Labor should
would, in particular, assist low-income call out digital literacy as a priority activity or
communities and communities of color. otherwise incentivize applicants to address
this issue in their responses to existing federal
8.6.3.3. Congress should direct the U.S. discretionary Solicitations for Grant
Department of Labor to formally implement Applications, such as those for
integrated online training components in apprenticeship grants. Further, The
Registered Apprenticeship Programs. Department of Labor should also issue a
Training and Employment Guidance Letter
The Department of Labor’s Employment and (TEGL) that clarifies how and when digital
Training Administration has acknowledged literacy activities can be paid for by WIOA
the potential impact of the COVID-19 Title I dollars (e.g., as part of technical training
pandemic on RAPs, which require an for an Integrated Education and Training [IET]
individual to be employed while in the program)
program.67 Congress should direct the
Department of Labor to develop standards 8.6.3.5. Congress should provide additional
and tools for companies to support online funds to State Workforce Agencies to
learning options for the Related Technical support the development of state and
Instruction portions of their Registered municipal efforts and public-private
Apprenticeship Programs (e.g., any parts of partnerships.
the training that do not require hands-on
training). Additional funding support for the Congress should direct the U.S. Department
development of online training components of Labor to work with the NASWA and
would enable widespread development and individual State Workforce Agencies to
adoption of virtual training programs. Further, develop public-private partnerships. There
the investment would have a positive ROI, as are numerous examples of public-private
entities would save on funds currently spent partnerships between municipalities,
to provide supportive services such as companies, nonprofit organizations, and other
transportation to training facilities, freeing up groups that focus on economically depressed
capital to improve the performance and and historically underrepresented and
outcomes of the training programs marginalized groups. But these types of
themselves. partnerships and programs do not exist in
every area.
8.6.3.4. Congress should direct WIOA to
implement support for virtual trainings under The U.S. Department of Labor and State
its core programs federal funding. Workforce Agencies can use the best
practices and standards developed from the
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 108
data collection efforts listed in 8.6.1 to undertakes developing recommendations
encourage the development and scaling of to address the workforce needs of the
new partnerships across additional states and communications industry.
municipalities, which can learn from and
replicate strategies from existing successful • The FCC, in consultation with DOL, should
programs. issue guidance on how states can
address the workforce shortage in the
8.6.3.6. The Federal Government should communications industry by identifying all
ramp up efforts working with the private of the federal resources currently
sector to provide apprenticeship available to states for workforce
opportunities and other efforts to address the development efforts.
labor shortfall in deploying next generation
broadband networks.
• The Government Accountability Office
should conduct a study to determine the
The U.S. currently lacks a sufficiently trained specific number of skilled
workforce to meet the demand for deploying communications workers the United
5G and other next generation broadband States needs to build and maintain
networks. As additional federal investment is broadband infrastructure, including in
introduced to build broadband networks, it rural areas, and the 5G wireless
will create more demand on a workforce that infrastructure needed to support 5G
is already under-supplied with the proper wireless technology.
skills. Expanding and upskilling this
workforce provides opportunities for
diversification so those building the networks • As part of this effort the communications
reflects the diversity of broadband industry should continue in its current
consumers. efforts to develop partnerships with
institutions of higher education, including
One way to address this need is through Historically Black Colleges and
apprenticeships that provide paid work Universities (HBCUs) and Tribal Colleges
experience, classroom instruction, and a and Universities (TCUs) to translate job
nationally recognized credential. The requirements from employers during the
Department of Labor has mechanisms in curriculum development process.
place to immediately implement support for
employers that seek to diversify and develop 8.6.3.7. Congress should fund public
their workforce for deploying broadband outreach campaigns to publicize online
networks. According to the Wireless training programs and initiatives.
Infrastructure Association (WIA), more than
50,000 new jobs through 2024 will be in One key to closing the broadband utilization
occupations that have existing or planned gap through workforce development is
apprenticeships—including 5G small-cell ensuring that the general public is aware of
technician, tower installers, supervisors, these opportunities. Congress should
engineers, project managers, and provide funding, and direct agencies such as
cybersecurity professionals. In that light: the Department of Labor, Department of
Education, Department of Commerce, and
• Congress should fund the Department of Small Business Administration to launch
Labor to expand communications and 5G nationwide publicity and outreach programs
apprenticeships, directly support to inform populations on available programs.
employers to provide apprentices with Additional funding should also be dispensed
technical instruction, fund institutes of to State Workforce Agencies to publicize
higher education to develop programs of programs within their respective states.
study on broadband and 5G training and
build pre-apprentice solutions. 8.6.4. THE WHITE HOUSE AND
CONGRESS SHOULD EXPAND ACCESS TO
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES AND
• The FCC should lead an interagency TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR
working group that, in consultation with ENTERPRISES LOCATED IN RURAL AREAS
the Department of Labor (DOL) and other AND COMMUNITIES OF COLOR.
federal and non-federal stakeholders,
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 109
The White House and Congress should community-benefit plan for each
support competitive grants fueling the private investment, with a focus on creating jobs
creation of urban and rural business for low-income residents and otherwise
incubators, technology campuses from providing a direct financial impact to
dormant industrial sites, and other measures households within the Opportunity Zones.
intended to foster targeted and localized
small business growth.68 This would help with • Directing that Opportunity Zone benefits
digital equity and inclusion by expanding the be reviewed by the Department of
technical skills of those in communities that to Treasury to ensure these tax benefits are
date have been largely excluded by the only being allowed where there are clear
changes in technology. For example, one economic, social, and environmental
such initiative could support the development benefits to a community, and not just high
of a national network of small business returns—like those from luxury apartments
incubators and innovation hubs on the or luxury hotels—to investors.
grounds of Small Business Development
Centers, public libraries, community colleges,
Historically Black Colleges and Universities • Introducing transparency by requiring
(HBCUs), Tribal Colleges and Universities recipients of the Opportunity Zone tax
(TCUs), and Minority Serving Institutions break to provide detailed reporting and
(MSIs). Such an initiative would provide public disclosure on their Opportunity
essential support for needed services such as Zone investments, and their impact on
business coaching, opportunities to partner local residents, including poverty status,
with national laboratories and commercialize housing affordability, and job creation.
federally funded research, and legal, human
resources, accounting, regulatory In addition to the emphasis on affordable
compliance, and information technology housing and local businesses, investors
services to aspiring entrepreneurs. should be encouraged to invest in training
centers that focus on digital skills training and
The initiative also would specifically workforce development programs. These
emphasize the importance of establishing the centers can serve as technology hubs in the
digital footprint of small businesses and community where workforce and business
include coaching and training opportunities development programs can rent space and
for digital engagement with businesses’ community members can go for digital
communities, jobseekers, and staff. Such an literacy and workforce development
initiative should direct upskilling resources to programs.
small and mid-sized companies, which are
more likely to employ workers with digital skill These actions, coupled with the research,
gaps, and often the least able to mount investment, and online workforce
ambitious in-house upskilling efforts. development program efforts outlined above,
could create opportunities for
8.6.4.1. The White House should reform the disenfranchised communities of color in
Opportunity Zone program in order to meet urban and rural areas.
its economic and community development
goals. 8.6.4.2. Support Federal Software
Preference for Places Left Behind in the
As discussed earlier in this chapter, the United States.
Opportunity Zone program has largely fallen
short of meeting its stated goals, with Congress should incentivize contractors who
investors tending to favor high-return projects sell software to the federal government to
such as luxury apartments rather than efforts locate part of their workforce in America, and
focused on economic empowerment, such as specifically in rural areas and communities of
affordable housing and local businesses. We color. By incentivizing relocation of work,
propose several reforms to the Opportunity there could be a move by government
Zone program, including: contractors to open software development
locations in areas left behind and create good
paying tech jobs.
• Incentivizing Opportunity Funds to partner
with nonprofit or community-oriented
organizations, and jointly producing a
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 110
8.6.5. STATES SHOULD MODERNIZE As discussed in Chapter Nine on Health Care,
THEIR UNEMPLOYMENT BENEFITS greater diversity in the health care workforce
SYSTEMS, TO ENABLE THE NEWLY can help address racial and ethnic health
UNEMPLOYED TO ACCESS BENEFITS AND care disparities. Health care professionals
OPPORTUNITIES FOR FUTURE who identify as racial or ethnic minorities are
EMPLOYMENT MORE EFFECTIVELY. more likely to provide care to lower-income,
minority, and uninsured populations. Only
Chapter 12 discusses a number of steps 23% of Black Americans, 26% of Latinxs and
governments should take to modernize and 39% of Asian Americans have a physician
improve the delivery of general services in who shares their race or ethnicity, compared
ways that benefit the public, and which would to 82% of white Americans. Racial
especially benefit persons in low-income concordance between the health care
communities and communities of color. Here, provider and patient correlates with improved
we focus on the specific need to modernize health outcomes, patient satisfaction, and
and improve the unemployment benefits communication. It can help overcome
system. A 2020 study by The Century harmful racial or cultural biases in the
Foundation, National Unemployment Law provision of health care, mistrust of the
Project, and Philadelphia Legal Assistance medical community, as well as cultural
reported that fewer than half of states have attitudes and beliefs about health care.
modernized their unemployment benefits
systems. Many claimants have found Although the overall health care workforce is
systems that were touted as convenient and becoming more diverse, the majority of
accessible to be in actuality challenging and people of color remain in entry-level and often
counterintuitive.69 We agree with the study lower-paying jobs with little opportunity for
and believe efforts at modernization should advancement. Further, BLS reports that 6 of
prioritize the following principles: the 10 fastest-growing occupations are
related to health care,70 presenting
• Unemployed workers should have 24/7 opportunities for people of color to seek
access to online and mobile services. stable, high-wage jobs in these fields. More
investment in programs that combine social,
academic, and financial support are needed
• Unemployment websites and applications to address the financial challenges,
should be optimized for mobile devices. disconnected pipelines, unclear career
As discussed throughout this Plan, low- pathways, and lack of academic and social
wage workers and workers of color are supports hindering workforce diversity.
particularly likely to rely on their phones for
Internet access. 8.6.7.1. Congress should pass legislation
increasing education support for workforce
• Call-back and chat technology should be diversity in health care.
used to deal with the large surges on
incoming calls and be implemented as Congress should authorize assistance for
part of a permanent solution. Such increasing workforce diversity in
technology would improve access while underrepresented professions (e.g., allied
saving money for the government. health care fields including physical and
occupational therapy, audiology, and
• All websites and applications should be speech-language pathology). This
translated into Spanish and other assistance might take the form of grants to
commonly spoken languages. education programs to provide scholarships,
Translating online materials would not only or support for recruitment and retention efforts
ensure equal access, but also be more for students of color.71
efficient for those needing assistance who
may never get through to a person on the 8.6.7.2. Congress should increase funding
phone or who get stuck on hold for hours. for workforce development of
underrepresented groups in health care.
8.6.7. CONGRESS SHOULD INCREASE
HEALTH CARE WORKFORCE DIVERSITY. The Department of Health and Human
Services (HHS) should increase funding to
support the development, recruitment, and
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 111
retention of health care professionals from
underrepresented groups. Funding should
augment student training, internships,
fellowships, and mentoring programs, as well
as ongoing professional development. HHS
should ensure coordination among efforts
across agencies (e.g., HRSA, CDC’s Office of
Minority Health and Health Equity (OMHHE),
Office of Minority Health, etc.).
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Chapter 9.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
HEALTH CARE
“OF ALL THE FORMS OF INEQUALITY, INJUSTICE IN HEALTH
IS THE MOST SHOCKING AND THE MOST INHUMAN"
- DR. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., CHICAGO, 1966
9.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
The failure to achieve digital equity and inclusion drives up health care costs for all
Americans because it deprives the system of the full cost savings these technologies
can generate. It particularly harms those with lower incomes and communities of color
who cannot receive health care services that are increasingly provided online. Even
when the tools to take advantage of online health care are available, members of these
communities often lack the knowledge and skills to use them.
Instead of closing gaps in access, quality of care, and patient experience, ironically,
digital technologies are exacerbating long-standing disparities, resulting in declining
health outcomes for at-risk populations, as well as higher costs systemwide. In part,
these problems are a function of existing regulations, which unintentionally hinder
adoption of online health care services by patients, providers, and insurers.
9.2. VISION 9.3. GOALS
We need a health care system that empowers The key goals for the digital equity and
everyone to attain their best possible health inclusion agenda in health care are directed
outcomes. Every American should be able to at improving health outcomes while lowering
get the right care, at the right time, wherever costs:
they are. A zip code should no longer be a
strong predictor of health outcome, as it is • Reduce disparities in access to care,
today. To do so, all persons should have quality of care, and patient experience.
access to user-friendly health-enabling tools
and technologies that connect them to high-
quality, affordable health care services and • Ensure all individuals benefit from
information they can understand. technology-driven advances in health
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 114
technology—including broadband-based
service delivery—independent of race,
income level, or location.
• Enable individuals receiving government- A significant problem plaguing the nation’s
supported health care benefits (including
Medicare, Medicaid, and state-level health care system is the fact that there are
assistance) to enjoy the benefits of health disparities across different ethnic
telehealth services to the same extent as
other patients. groups. Black Americans, for example,
experience the highest rates of mortality
• Enhance digital health literacy among low-
income persons and persons of color. from heart disease, cancer, cerebrovascular
disease, and HIV/AIDS than any other U.S.
• Engage in and disseminate evidence-
based research on improving care equity racial or ethnic group. Hispanic Americans
for communities of color. are almost twice as likely as non-Hispanic
9.4. CURRENT SITUATION whites to die from diabetes. Some Asian
Americans experience rates of stomach,
Low-income communities and communities of liver and cervical cancers that are well above
color face profound disparities in health
status. They experience higher incidence or national averages.’ Further exacerbating this
prevalence of disease, earlier onset or faster
progression of disease, poorer daily problem, members of ethnic groups are less
functioning and quality of life, premature or likely than whites to have health insurance,
excessive mortality, and greater global
burden of disease.72 In particular, these have more difficulty getting health care and
communities suffer higher rates of heart
disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, have fewer choices in where to receive care.
asthma, HIV/AIDS, and infant mortality. Infant
mortality for Black Americans, a key indicator
of a population’s health, is almost twice the
national average.73 (Please see Appendix
9A—Health Disparities). As the National
Broadband Plan noted a decade ago:
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 115
Challenges accessing care contribute to linguistically and culturally appropriate care.
these disparities. Longitudinal research (Please see Appendix 9B—Benefits of
comparing quality measures across Telehealth).
racial/ethnic minorities and lower income
groups shows that while overall quality is It is important to recognize that access to and
improving for these groups, their access is utilization of telehealth by at-risk communities
worse and there has been no progress in is a rural and urban issue, not a rural versus
lessening disparities.74 A study in the greater urban solution. However, the Medicare
Rochester, NY area showed that introducing statute, which was waived during the
telehealth to impoverished inner-city children pandemic, generally restricts telehealth
redressed socioeconomic disparities in acute eligibility to beneficiaries in rural areas.
care access, thus contributing to a more Further, setting up and maintaining telehealth
equitable community.75 infrastructure is expensive and most large
health systems that would do so are located
Broadband has the potential to address many in urban areas. The private capital investment
of the key failings of the health care system in telehealth infrastructure needed for rural
that contribute to disparities, including areas is more likely to be financed if it can be
inadequate access to care, inconsistent leveraged to also care for local urban
quality of care, and variations in patient populations who suffer similar access
experience due to location. Because the challenges.76
Internet is indifferent to time, distance,
location, and technology, it has great potential Telehealth is proving that it can improve
to erase many inequities. However, this is health outcomes. It can also lower costs.
only possible if everyone is connected, and (Please see Appendix 9B—Benefits of
only if the tools for utilizing health care are Telehealth). But a lack of digital equity and
usable by everyone, not just the tech savvy. inclusion is making it more difficult to achieve
Again, as noted in the National Broadband potential cost savings in providing health
Plan, “Broadband is not a panacea. However, care. The need to reduce costs is urgent, as
there is a developing set of broadband- the Department of Health and Human
enabled solutions that can play an important Services (HHS) projects health costs will grow
role in the transformation required to address to a staggering $6 trillion by 2027,77 and
these issues.” Medicare’s Trustees warn that the Medicare
system will go bankrupt in 2026.78
Internet-based health care delivery is
generally referred to as telehealth. The Although comprehensive, population-wide
defining feature of telehealth is that the analysis is needed and should be undertaken
clinician and patient are not physically in the by the Center for Medicare and Medicaid
same room. Telehealth technologies today Innovation (as recommended and discussed
already include live video conferencing, in Chapter 5), there are numerous examples
mobile health (mHealth) apps, text messages, of Internet-enabled health care lowering
“store and forward” electronic transmission, costs.
and Internet-enabled and wearable devices
for remote patient monitoring (RPM) that are • Research shows that telehealth could
used to provide care. The future, no doubt, potentially save companies more than $6
will see many more exciting innovations in this billion a year, for example, by keeping
area. employees healthier and more
productive.79
Telehealth is not a separate form of health
care, but rather a means for health care
professionals to provide care that is more • Goldman Sachs estimates that connected
convenient and less expensive for patients, to devices could reduce health costs by
connect patients in rural and urban areas that $300 billion, by increasing access to
are underserved in terms of specialists (such diagnostic treatments, preventative care,
as cardiologists and neonatologists) who and chronic disease management.80
would be otherwise inaccessible, and to
engage individuals in managing their health
and wellness. It expands the reach of health
care professionals so people can obtain
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• Digital therapeutics, which are
technology-based solutions that have a
clinical impact on disease comparable to
that of a drug, have the potential to
provide effective, low-cost ways to The Veterans Health Administration (VHA)
prevent and treat chronic diseases and
their consequences.81 (Please see coordinates the care of 32,000 veteran
Appendix 9C—Digital Therapeutics). patients with chronic conditions through a
• One study estimated average savings of national program called Care
$97 to $145 per patient per month when Coordination/Home Telehealth (CCHT).
digital therapeutics were used for type 2
diabetes and hypertension.82 CCHT involves the systematic use of health
informatics, e-care, and disease
• For its Diabetes Telehealth Network,
Mississippi became the first state to pay management technologies to avoid
mobile connectivity fees for telehealth and unnecessary admission to long-term
projected Medicaid savings of $189
million a year.83 institutional care. Technologies include
videophones, messaging devices, biometric
• A more recent study of a tele-video health
care program found that “the majority of devices, digital cameras, and remote
health concerns could be resolved in a
single consultation and new utilization was monitoring devices. CCHT led to a 25%
infrequent. Synchronous audio-video reduction in the number of bed days of care
telemedicine consults resulted in short-
term cost savings by diverting patients and a 19% drop in hospital admissions. At
from more expensive care settings,” with
the net cost savings per telemedicine visit $1,600 per patient per year, it costs far less
“calculated to range from $19–$121 per than the VHA’s home-based primary care
visit.”
services ($13,121 per year) and nursing
• In recognition of the ability to improve home care rates ($77,745 on average per
outcomes and lower costs, Kaiser
Permanente, one of the nation’s largest patient per year). Based on the VHA’s
not-for-profit health plans, makes experience, e-care is an appropriate and
telehealth a key component of its
integrated approach to high-quality care cost-effective way to manage chronic care
delivery.84
patients in urban and rural settings. Most
Even a decade ago, it was clear that health importantly, it enables patients to live
care provided over communications
technology could help reduce U.S. health independently at home.
care costs. As the National Broadband Plan
noted:
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In 2012, telehealth services provided to over percent of Black and over 70 percent of
150,000 beneficiaries resulted in average Hispanic adults age 65+ are incapable, for
annual savings of $6,500 per patient, which different reasons, of conducting video visits.93
equated to nearly one billion in annual savings These trends, coupled with excess-death
for the VHA.85 data, are concerning as they suggest
declines in primary care, inadequate chronic
Although telehealth has been available for disease management, and increased
decades, the pandemic has greatly mortality long-term due to lack of detection
accelerated its adoption across all patient and treatment among marginalized
and provider populations.86 The Centers for populations.
Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS)
reported unprecedented increases in 9.5. KEY CHALLENGES TO
telehealth, with 1.7 million beneficiaries
receiving services in the last week of April, OVERCOME
2020, versus only 13,000 a week before the
pandemic.87 Early CMS data show telehealth A reliance on digital technology to accomplish
to be an effective way for people to access essential tasks, including disseminating
health care safely during the COVID-19 health information and monitoring conditions,
pandemic, whether it is getting a prescription as well as communicating with and engaging
refilled, managing chronic conditions, or patients in their health care, has the
obtaining mental health counseling.88 unfortunate potential to add to, rather than
erase, current health disparities for patients
However, early signs of disparities in access without access to or the skills to use these
to care via telehealth are emerging. COVID- technologies.94 COVID-19 has brought new
19 both highlighted and added to these attention to some of the key challenges to
disparities, as the pandemic achieving digital equity and inclusion in health
disproportionately impacts communities of care. These include the availability and
color. Federal data show that Black American adoption of home broadband (which
and Latinx individuals are nearly three times includes, by definition, reliable and affordable
more likely than Whites to contract COVID-19, service) and Internet-enabled devices;
almost five times more likely to be eligibility to receive telehealth services and
hospitalized, and twice as likely to die from corresponding reimbursement; limitations in
it.89 Furthermore, vaccine appointments are digital literacy and workforce diversity, which
largely made online, leaving persons of color affect interactions with providers; and limited
that lack Internet access unable to sign up. research and data specific to telehealth and
The effects of missing care and having communities of color.
diseases go undiagnosed and/or untreated
since the onset of the pandemic are Further, there are few national standards for
disproportionately harming persons of color. telehealth, and reimbursement for eligible
According to the CDC, excess deaths services and type of technology used varies
increased nearly 15 percent for Whites, but by state and insurer. These inconsistencies
almost 45 percent for Latinx and over 28 hinder broader telehealth adoption, especially
percent for Black populations last year.90 for Medicaid beneficiaries, the majority of
whom are people of color.
Large primary care practices have found that
patients identifying as Non-Hispanic White
represent a higher proportion of provider 9.6. RECOMMENDATIONS
visits once telehealth was scaled up;
whereas, communities of color and those with There are enormous disparities in health and
a non-English language preference saw health care. Telehealth is part of the solution
decreases in provider visits.91 Similarly, a to reduce them, but it can only be successful
study in the Journal of the American Medical if low-income communities and communities
Informatics Association shows that Black and of color are connected, have connected
Latinx patients in New York City during the devices, and know how to use them for health
early peak of the crisis had lower odds of care purposes (e.g., find and download a
using telehealth instead of the emergency health care app, log into it using an email
room or an office visit compared to Whites or address, and comprehend the language on
Asians.92 Another recent study found that 60 the screen). There is a confluence of factors
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 118
that adds to the urgency of driving telehealth that federal government health insurance
adoption among communities of color. First, programs support broadband adoption by
telehealth is growing and will remain a feature covered persons who are not connected and
of service delivery even post pandemic. who are below a set income level, ensuring
Second, telehealth is a path for achieving they have the necessary devices, training,
more equitable health outcomes while still and other tools needed to take advantage of
containing costs. The recommendations the full range of expanding telehealth
below outline steps that Congress and the services.
Administration should take to advance digital
equity and inclusion in health care. 9.6.1.1. Conduct a Large-Scale Study of
Paying for Patient Connectivity.
9.6.1. LEVERAGE THE FEDERAL ROLE IN
FUNDING HEALTH INSURANCE TO CLOSE As the nation’s largest payer, and henceforth
THE HEALTH CARE BROADBAND GAP beneficiary of telehealth cost savings, CMS
FOR INDIVIDUALS should explore creative approaches to
ensuring communities of color can receive
As discussed throughout this Chapter, care via telehealth. Either as a step in
Americans seeking health care rely designing the LifelineMed program described
increasingly on broadband services for in Chapter 5, or in piloting it before a full-scale
essential services. Some of that increase is roll-out, CMS, in conjunction with the Federal
driven by COVID-19. Unfortunately, the Communications Commission (FCC), should
benefits of telehealth have not been create a scalable demonstration program to
experienced by those without access to test the effect of providing patient connectivity
broadband, a population group that could and corresponding digital health education
most benefit from access to telehealth. As on health outcomes and the cost of care for
discussed in Chapter 4, broadband adoption communities of color.
is lowest among low-income communities and
communities of color. Broadband access has been shown to be a
crucial determinant in the use of digital health
There are many reasons non-adopters would tools.96 There is also growing consensus that
benefit significantly from telehealth. They are broadband access is a social determinant of
more likely to work in hourly jobs, so saving health generally (please see Appendix 9D—
the time that would be taken up traveling to Social Determinants of Health), and
and from a doctors’ office results in increased disparities in access should be treated as a
wages. They are less likely to have cars, and public health issue.97 As such, participation in
therefore being able to visit with a health care this demonstration program must purposefully
professional without having to resort to the target racial and ethnic minorities. Medicare
use of public transportation, which may not be beneficiaries are approximately 10% Black,
convenient to the doctors’ office, or an 9% Hispanic, 4% Asian/Native
expensive taxi ride, is also a significant Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, and less than 1%
benefit. Finally, non-adopters are more likely American Indian/Alaskan Native.98
to lack affordable childcare, and might Conversely, nearly 60% of Medicaid and half
otherwise skip or delay necessary doctor of the 10.9 million dual eligible beneficiaries
visits if they are unable to access care from are from communities of color.
their homes.
Aligned incentives, particularly the accrual of
But without access to broadband, such financial benefits to the payer, contribute to
benefits are unlikely to be realized. The the feasibility and success of the VHA
Federal Health IT Strategic Plan calls for program. The demonstration program needs
advancing “equitable access to technology to recognize that the telehealth experience in
and broadband for individuals, families, and fee-for-service may vary from that of
communities.”95 Policymakers must now alternative payment models, in which added
proactively promote and support broadband incentive payments are given for providing
at home, both to improve health outcomes, high-quality and cost-efficient care. Program
and to achieve needed cost savings for its findings may help accelerate the transition to
covered population. As described in Chapter value-based care.
5, the way to do so is through the proposed
LifelineMed program, which would mandate
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Such a program would require case that those who stand to benefit most from
management workers and coordinators to funding programs are able to use them. They
ensure that participating individuals receive should assess the complexity of application
the necessary education and support to take processes, ease of navigating online systems,
full advantage of telehealth. A large speed and duration of processes, ability to
component of their role would be providing meet application requirements (e.g.,
technical assistance and digital health literacy procuring competitive bids), etc. The FCC
tools. should aim to simplify and streamline
administrative aspects and reduce
9.6.2. REMOVE REGULATORY uncertainty (for example, surrounding subsidy
OBSTACLES TO FULL TELEHEALTH amounts from year-to-year). The FCC should
EQUITY AND INCLUSION ensure USAC has adequate internal health
care expertise to effectively manage
Numerous existing policies and regulations infrastructure deployment and subsidy
unintentionally hinder telehealth equity and programs serving the health care industry.
inclusion. We have the opportunity to elevate
equity and inclusion as priorities in 9.6.2.2. Drive Consistency Across Medicaid
policymaking and revisit decisions ranging Programs to Reduce Disparities in Access.
from funding and administration to
reimbursement and eligibility through this State laws, regulations and Medicaid program
lens. policies differ significantly. Telehealth policy
on Medicaid reimbursement, private payer
9.6.2.1. Fund Broadband Networks for reimbursement laws, coverage parity,
Eligible Health Care Providers and Ensure payment parity, covered modalities (e.g.,
Programs are Accessible to Those Serving audiovisual, audio only, store and forward,
Communities of Color. remote patient monitoring), establishing
clinician-patient relationships, and
As discussed in Chapter 3, Congress should professional requirements around interstate
provide robust funding to close the Availability licensing compacts and informed consent
Gap, making it possible for telehealth services also varies by state. For example, only 23
to be utilized nationwide. Many of the health states reimburse for remote patient
centers, clinics and long-term care facilities monitoring, and only 19 allow service to a
that serve communities of color do not have patient’s home under certain circumstances.
adequate and/or affordable broadband Some laws require reimbursement be equal to
connectivity to serve those populations. We in-person coverage, while others only require
should ensure that all such providers are able parity in covered services. And some states
to offer a full spectrum of telehealth services. require in-person visits before telehealth can
One way to do so would be to build on the be used.99 This creates a complex
FCC effort to help rural health care providers administrative landscape for health care
by broadening support to include non-rural providers to navigate, diminishes access to
providers and certain for-profit entities (which care, and reinforces disparities in health care
are currently excluded as the and health outcomes. Some of these
Communications Act limits eligibility to public disparities among states are exacerbated by
or nonprofit entities) that cannot afford differences in Medicaid expansion, with state
adequate broadband services to serve their borders creating Medicaid haves and have-
populations. Results of the FCC’s Connected nots. HHS should work with state legislatures
Care Pilot Program (discussed below), which and the National Governors Association to
is open to non-rural clinics, should inform increase consistency across Medicaid
policy decisions. In allocating funds for programs and ensure that state-based
underserved areas, the FCC should consider policies do not unintentionally discriminate
eligibility measures that focus on against communities of color in accessing
economically depressed areas, instead of telehealth services.
population density alone.
9.6.2.3. Remove Geographic and
The FCC, in conjunction with USAC, should Originating Site Restrictions.
review administration of the Rural Health Care
Program and health care pilot programs, and The ability to connect clinicians and patients
make any modifications necessary to ensure without regard to their respective locations is
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one of the most compelling benefits of thereby hindering access to care. Notably,
telehealth.100 Current Medicare rules generally the VA telehealth program enables VA
allow telehealth services only for beneficiaries practitioners to treat veterans no matter where
in rural areas and specify the type of facility the veteran or physician are located.102
(known as originating site) where a patient Progress is being made through the Interstate
must be located at the time of service. An Medical Licensure Compact, an agreement
unintended consequence of these among states (currently 29 and the District of
geographic and originating site restrictions is Columbia)103 to streamline the licensing
the exclusion of the majority of members of process for physicians who want to practice
communities of color from using telehealth, as in multiple states, the Nurse Licensure
these individuals live predominantly in non- Compact, the Psychology Interjurisdictional
rural areas.101 This can hinder linguistically Compact (PSYPACT), and a handful of
and culturally appropriate access to mental reciprocity arrangements. CMS should work
health, specialty, and general care. Congress with the Federation of State Medical Boards,
should remove both geographic restrictions the National Governors Association and the
on where a patient must be located to utilize National Conference of State Legislatures to
telehealth services and originating site ensure that Medicare, Medicaid, and CHIP
restrictions that limit access from home and beneficiaries are not denied the benefits of
other locations. The latter is particularly telehealth because of the state in which they
important for rural and Tribal residents who reside.
will rely increasing on telehealth to access
health care services. 9.6.2.7. Augment Organizational Resources
to Reflect Equity and Inclusion Concerns
9.6.2.4. Remove Limitations on Eligible Beyond Rural.
Providers and Services.
Recognizing that telehealth is a vital aspect of
Congress should remove the remaining health care delivery, and that its application
statutory restrictions on practitioners eligible and current limits are not limited to rural areas,
to provide services via telehealth, including the Office for the Advancement of Telehealth
licensed respiratory therapists, physical (OAT) should be elevated within the Health
therapists, occupational therapists, and Resources and Services Administration
speech language pathologists, and allow (HRSA.) Rather than house OAT under the
these practitioners to provide telehealth Federal Office of Rural Health Policy
services from their homes without updating (FORHP), OAT should be on par
their Medicare enrollment. organizationally. It would then more easily
coordinate with both FORHP and the Office of
9.6.2.5. Remove Limitations on FQHCs and Health Equity (OHE), as well as other
RHCs. agencies.
Federally Qualified Health Centers (FQHCs) 9.6.3. LEVERAGE FCC CONNECTED CARE
and Rural Health Clinics (RHCs) serve highly PILOT PROGRAM TO BROADEN IMPACT
vulnerable populations. Prior to the ON LOW-INCOME COMMUNITIES AND
pandemic, FQHCs and RHCs were not COMMUNITIES OF COLOR.
eligible to furnish “distant site” (where the
physician is located) telehealth services. The current FCC pilot program makes
Given the increasingly important role of available up to $100 million over three years
telehealth in supporting low-income to support the provision of telehealth, in
communities and communities of color, particular to low-income individuals and
Congress should permanently authorize veterans. It differs from the current Rural
FQHCs and RHCs to provide distant site Health Care Program in two important
telehealth services. aspects: (1) it is open to eligible health care
providers in non-rural areas and, (2) it allows
9.6.2.6. Adjust State Licensure funding for patient connectivity. Like the FCC
Requirements to Enable Greater Access to COVID-19 Telehealth Program (please see
Care. below), this presents an opportunity to
address broadband affordability, a major
State laws vary, and clinicians may not be telehealth barrier for communities of color.
able to treat patients across state lines,
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The FCC should work with the HRSA to solicit served, will inform future policies. As this
applications from appropriate non-rural program includes funding for patient
providers (especially those unfamiliar with connectivity and devices necessary to
FCC programs) and assist them with the provide telehealth services, evaluation
application process. The FCC should findings will be useful in designing future
prioritize selection of eligible health care program parameters. In the interests of
providers that serve low-income communities promoting digital equity and inclusion, the
of color and request support for patient FCC should seek a granular understanding of
connectivity. The FCC should coordinate with the populations served via telehealth and the
CMS to (1) ensure that patients covered by health impact on end-user beneficiaries. The
the pilot are deemed eligible for telehealth FCC should also evaluate the operational
services, and (2) evaluate the pilot results. aspects of the program and apply those
The FCC and CMS should analyze the effects learnings to other programs as appropriate.
of providing patient connectivity on the For example, factors that may have simplified
provision of care (including types of services, and/or streamlined the application process,
providers, modalities, and locations), total reduced processing timelines, aided
cost of care (including savings and avoided prospective awardees in navigating the
costs), and health outcomes. The learnings system, helped target specific populations,
from this pilot could substantively inform etc.
future policy recommendations for ensuring
low-income communities and communities of 9.6.4.2. Evaluate COVID-19 Telehealth
color benefit from telehealth. Experience with Specific Focus on
Communities of Color.
9.6.4. GENERATE TELEHEALTH
RESEARCH & DATA SPECIFIC TO In light of the increase in telehealth usage
COMMUNITIES OF COLOR. stimulated by COVID-19, HHS should
specifically collect and analyze data on
An important objective in the Federal Health telehealth and communities of color.
IT Strategic Plan is to support research and Evaluation of utilization, outcomes, cost,
analysis using health IT and data at the patient/provider satisfaction, and other data,
individual and population levels. It calls for would help build an evidence base. Analyses
research conducted to reflect the nation’s should inform the work of several agencies
diversity so that findings can be applied within HHS, including CDC, CMS, HRSA,
across populations. For too long, racial and NIMHD (National Institute on Minority Health
ethnic minorities have been and Health Disparities), and AHRQ (Agency
underrepresented in clinical research. There for Health care Research and Quality), as well
needs to be prospective research focused on as the VHA.
the potential of and limitations to telehealth in
improving care equity for communities of 9.6.5. FUND TELEHEALTH
color. Collecting and reporting accurate race, INFRASTRUCTURE AND TECHNICAL
ethnicity, and language (REAL) data is ASSISTANCE WITH THE STRATEGIC
essential to advancing granular INTENT OF REDUCING DISPARITIES.
understanding of the impact of telehealth on
communities of color. Data capture must be Congress should provide funding to HHS for
emphasized at the point of care and telehealth infrastructure and technical
electronic health records updated assistance. Funds would support clinician
accordingly. training in technologies, investment in
telehealth infrastructure, and development of
9.6.4.1. Evaluate FCC COVID-19 Telehealth tools and resources to improve health-related
Program with Specific Focus on Impact on digital literacy.
and Lessons for Communities of Color.
HRSA, specifically, should receive increased
The FCC should conduct an ongoing funding for the existing 12 Regional and two
assessment of and reporting on the results of National Telehealth Resource Centers (TRCs),
the COVID-19 Telehealth Program. which provide real-time assistance to states,
Understanding the composition of funding providers, and communities. TRC funding
recipients, how recipients used the funds, and stands at $29 million a year and has seen
the corresponding outcomes on populations relatively modest increases over the last
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 122
decade, despite explosive growth in First, HHS should work with organizations and
telehealth. Increasing the budget to $50 professionals to make the health information
million a year would improve TRC’s ability to and services that they provide more
support members of communities of color in understandable and actionable and help
benefiting from telehealth. develop education and training to teach
patients digital skills to conduct video visits
9.6.6. ENHANCE DIGITAL HEALTH and navigate apps and portals. Second, HHS
LITERACY. should collaborate with adult basic education
programs to simultaneously meet the goals of
As discussed in Chapter 4, digital readiness providing relevant instruction while offering
is a major barrier to broadband adoption and adult learners the chance to improve their
the need to improve digital literacy is urgent. health outcomes by building their digital
In the health care context, lacking digital health literacy. Third, HHS should increase
health literacy can adversely impact health the dissemination and use of evidence-based
outcomes. For example, many elderly health literacy practices and interventions.
persons of color, who are at greatest risk for Leveraging community health workers, faith-
COVID-19, are unable to sign up for vaccines based organizations and schools can help
without help from family or friends. The reach those individuals most in need.
federal government states that “improving
access to electronic health information— 9.6.7. INCREASE HEALTH CARE
especially for populations in rural areas, WORKFORCE DIVERSITY TO IMPROVE
persons with disabilities, racial and ethnic ACCESS, QUALITY AND PATIENT
minorities, and those with low socioeconomic EXPERIENCE FOR COMMUNITIES OF
status—should be prioritized if we are to COLOR.
achieve equitable care outcomes for all. In
addition, patients and caregivers should have Greater diversity in the health care workforce
access to resources that allow for improved can help address racial and ethnic health
health IT literacy so they understand how their care disparities. Health care professionals
health data may be used, how to choose safe who identify as racial or ethnic minorities are
and secure health apps, and how to set their more likely to provide care to lower-income,
privacy preferences.” Digital health literacy minority and uninsured populations.105 Only
requires: (1) basic reading and writing skills; 23% of Black Americans, 26% of Latinxs and
(2) working knowledge of using smartphones, 39% of Asian Americans have a physician that
laptops, computers, and other Internet- shares their race or ethnicity, compared to
enabled devices; and (3) an understanding of 82% of White Americans.106 Racial
how, why, and when online health information concordance between the health care
is created, shared, and received.104 These provider and patient correlates with improved
skills are applied when using tools such as health outcomes, patient satisfaction and
health apps, live video consults, online patient communication.107 It can also help overcome
portals, and remote monitoring devices. harmful racial or cultural biases in the
Without these skills, low-income communities provision of health care, mistrust of the
and communities of color will be unable to medical community, as well as cultural
take advantage of telehealth. The Office of attitudes and beliefs about health care.
the National Coordinator for Health IT, in Although the overall health care workforce is
conjunction with the federal organizations that becoming more diverse, the majority of
contributed to the Federal Health IT Strategic people of color remain in entry-level and often
Plan and the proposed Office of Digital Equity, lower-paying jobs with little opportunity for
should ensure that its objective to improve advancement.108 As discussed in greater
individual access, particularly for those in low- detail in Chapter 8 on Workforce
income communities and communities of Development, Congress needs to appropriate
color, to usable health information is met. more funds for programs that combine social,
academic and financial support to address
9.6.6.1. Increase Support for Practitioners the financial challenges, disconnected
Promoting Digital Health Literacy to Their pipelines and unclear career pathways, and
Patients. lack of academic and social supports
hindering workforce diversity. A lack of
HHS should support practitioners at the point workforce diversity should not be allowed to
of care in promoting digital health literacy.
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persist as a barrier to communities of color
benefiting from telehealth.
9.6.7.1. Pass Legislation Increasing
Education Support for Workforce Diversity in
Health Care.
Congress should pass legislation, such as
that proposed to authorize assistance for
increasing workforce diversity in
underrepresented professions (e.g., allied
health care fields including physical and
occupational therapy, audiology, and
speech-language pathology). This
assistance might take the form of grants to
education programs to provide scholarships
or support recruitment and retention efforts for
students of color. As allied health services are
increasingly provided online, it is important
that individuals be able to receive
linguistically and culturally appropriate care.
9.6.7.2. Increase Funding for Workforce
Development of Underrepresented Groups in
Health Care.
HHS should increase funding to support the
development, recruitment, and retention of
health care professionals from
underrepresented groups. Funding should
augment student training, internship,
fellowship, and mentoring programs, as well
as ongoing professional development. HHS
should ensure coordination among efforts
across agencies (e.g., HRSA, CDC’s Office of
Minority Health and Health Equity (OMHHE),
Office of Minority Health, etc.).
HRSA should receive increased funding for
programs within the Bureau of Health
Workforce that advance diversity among
health professions. These include the
Centers of Excellence (COE) Program,
Scholarships for Disadvantaged Students
(SDS) Program, Area Health Education
Centers (AHEC) Program, and National
Health Careers Opportunity Program (HCOP)
Academies. FY 2020 funding for these
programs stands at $131.4 million; the
President’s FY 2021 budget proposes
continued funding only for the COE ($23.7
million a year). The Bureau of Health
Workforce should help further develop
professional pathways for entry-level health
professionals to advance in their careers and
explore the impact of recruiting and hiring
diverse faculty in higher education.
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Chapter 10.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
REIMAGINING
CONNECTED
EDUCATION
“IT IS REQUIRED IN THE PERFORMANCE OF OUR MOST BASIC
PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITIES, EVEN SERVICE IN THE ARMED FORCES.
IT IS THE VERY FOUNDATION OF GOOD CITIZENSHIP. TODAY IT IS A
PRINCIPAL INSTRUMENT IN AWAKENING THE CHILD TO CULTURAL
VALUES, IN PREPARING HIM FOR LATER PROFESSIONAL TRAINING,
AND IN HELPING HIM TO ADJUST NORMALLY TO HIS ENVIRONMENT.
IN THESE DAYS, IT IS DOUBTFUL THAT ANY CHILD MAY
REASONABLY BE EXPECTED TO SUCCEED IN LIFE IF HE IS DENIED
THE OPPORTUNITY OF AN EDUCATION. SUCH AN OPPORTUNITY,
WHERE THE STATE HAS UNDERTAKEN TO PROVIDE IT, IS A RIGHT
WHICH MUST BE MADE AVAILABLE TO ALL ON EQUAL TERMS.”
—BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION
10.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT opportunity. Under-resourced, low-income
school districts are unable to attract and
retain well-qualified teachers, provide
Almost seventy years after the Brown v. rigorous curricula and assessments, or meet
Board of Education decision, America still even basic needs such as safe and adequate
does not provide all children with an equal facilities. Investments in state-of-the art
opportunity to receive a high-quality technology solutions are even more unlikely.
education. Disparate educations lead to
disparate achievements and opportunities to Yet, for students in these districts, digital
become fully engaged, active, and successful technology offers a tremendous opportunity to
citizens. break free of barriers imposed by traditional
models of instruction, where teaching was
Since the beginnings of public education, the confined to the four walls of a classroom.
level of investment made for each individual
student has depended primarily on their zip Unfortunately for many students, the
code. Today, districts serving the greatest opportunities offered by technologies
proportion of students of color spend $1,800 including the World Wide Web and video
less per student than districts serving the conferencing, let alone self-paced learning
fewest students of color.109 This disparity in tools with adaptive algorithms, digital
funding creates a vicious cycle of disparity in
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curricula and classroom materials, and strategy across all levels of education to
augmented and virtual reality, are little more address these issues.
than additional opportunities that remain out
of reach. Education Superhighway estimates
that 9.7million K-12 students do not have 10.2. VISION
reliable Internet at home. Students who lack
home Internet risk falling behind, as well as We should develop a new educational
being unable to learn the technology skills infrastructure that supports all students, that
that are needed for many jobs. provides equitable access to the tools and
content of fast-evolving digital learning, that
This digital education gap has long been uses those tools to assist them wherever they
referred to, somewhat inaccurately, as the are developmentally and personally, that
“homework gap.” But the problem goes far accelerates and supports them to learn in
beyond an inability for some students to ways that represent their diverse needs and
complete assignments that require at a depth of mastery that is required to
broadband service at home, forcing them to succeed in the modern economic and social
use libraries and other public buildings or context, that provides teachers the support
even fast-food parking lots to connect to free they need to enable students to maximize the
Wi-Fi networks, often with inadequate devices use of digital content, and provides a future
such as smartphones. As digital tools have where the vast expanse of opportunities
become more deeply embedded in the available are truly open to all students.
education process, the homework gap has
continued to increase, and now extends far 10.3. GOALS
beyond homework to every facet of learning.
The COVID-19 pandemic has turned the 1. By the end of 2023, every K-12 student
“homework gap” into a full-fledged classroom and teacher in America should have
gap for students systemwide, as many broadband service at home, Internet-
schools are forced to offer virtual-only connected devices that support basic and
learning. Computing devices and broadband advanced learning applications, and the
service instantly mutated from helpful learning offline support they need to engage
tools to necessities, essential for all in and out securely in effective remote or online
of classroom and school related learning. learning.
And while some schools are returning to more
normal classrooms, most are still using virtual 2. All policymakers should fully embrace
mechanisms in a hybrid manner. There is no education as a national strategic priority
certainty as to how long this will last or and fund a robust research and
whether other health situations will cause a development agenda focused on
similar shut down of physical classrooms. advancing models of digital teaching and
learning to promote equity, and advance
Digital inequity and exclusion in education, outcomes for all students.
moreover, does not just manifest itself solely
through lack of broadband services and 3. Governments at the federal, state, and
devices in the home. We also see it in digital local levels should provide funding
literacy skill gaps; the inability of curricula sufficient for adequate and equitable
authors to keep up with evolving education outcomes, ensuring that the
technologies; a dearth of research and most vulnerable students have access to
development, leading to curricula which itself the resources they need for digital
enables increased digital inequity and learning.
exclusion, a lack of access to respectful and
culturally responsive content; the lack of 4. By the end of 2024, every K-12 student in
evolving teacher training and support; the America should have access to culturally
challenges faced by working parents responsive and relevant curricula for their
(particularly in sectors not conducive to core subjects in a form usable for online
telecommuting) in supervising and assisting learning.
their kids’ remote learning throughout the
school day; and the absence of a coherent
5. By the end of 2023, every K-12 teacher
should have the tools, training,
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infrastructure, resources, and support researchers begun to understand the many
they need to deliver effective online or factors contributing to these gaps. They have
remote learning experiences for their found that students of color are significantly
students. more likely to be:
6. Federal and state education agencies • Learning in a significantly under-
should employ executive level technology resourced school.
leaders (CTO/CIO) to advance policy and
program initiatives designed to unlock the • Taught by underprepared teachers.
value of technology safely and securely
and infrastructure.
• Enrolled in a school with few, if any,
rigorous courses like Advanced
10.4. BACKGROUND: DIGITAL Placement or International Baccalaureate.
DIVIDES WIDEN PRE-EXISTING
• Taught by adults who are teaching across
OPPORTUNITY AND ACHIEVEMENT cultural divides, with little understanding
or appreciation for the culture of the
GAPS students they serve.
All students have valuable and unique • Disciplined, even suspended, for minor
perspectives, skills, and knowledge, as well infractions that would not lead to a similar
as an innate drive to learn more, gain greater response if the student were white.
expertise, and contribute to a future where the
full range of opportunities are truly available to The combination of these and related factors
them. Yet not all students are given equal result in a school system that, by default,
opportunities and support to develop rations the quality of education to students of
themselves in these ways. color and other minorities. That rationing has
only been increasing during the COVID-19
Inequities in education continue to create a crisis.
gap between students in well-funded, well-
supported public and private educational The COVID-19 crisis has made abundantly
systems, and those students who attend clear that few if any American schools were
schools that are poorly funded and prepared for a sudden transition to online
inadequately organized. The gap in funding learning.110 In a May 2020 survey, more than
and organization in educational systems 70% of teachers did not feel their schools
correlates strongly along racial, ethnic, and were prepared for the pandemic. Students
income lines. These long-standing problems also lacked the digital literacy needed for the
are much broader than the issues of transition to remote learning.
educational technology and infrastructure,
but gaps in education technology are
accelerating the growth of an increasingly That lack of preparation made life more
steep divide for students of color and/or difficult for almost everyone involved in the
poverty. educational ecosystem - students, parents,
teachers, administrators, vendors, and others
have all been scrambling to catch up and
Despite valiant efforts to address adapt to the new normal, with little time or
achievement gaps in public education over opportunity to figure out the best approach.
several decades, the pattern of An April 2020 survey of over 5,600 teaching
disproportionality in academic achievement professionals from across the United States
and attainment remains stubbornly resistant found that 55% of teachers said that less than
to correction. Students of color read on half of their students were attending remote
average at 2 to 3 grade levels below their classes. Thirty-four percent of respondents
white peers. They drop out of high school at reported that only 25% of their students or
twice the rate and are four times more likely to fewer were attending remote classes.111
attend a low performing school.
The most vulnerable students have clearly
Poverty accounts for some of this difference, suffered the most. More affluent learners with
but not all. Only in the last 20 years have
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home broadband, digital devices, and • Funding for connections, devices, and
support have been afforded alternative support, both in schools and at home, is
opportunities and choice. Students without inadequate, especially for schools and
access to these resources, whether through a students with the greatest need.
lack of connectivity or lack of tools/resources
or devices, are either denied learning or have
to do additional work just to gain their previous • Lack of a holistic long-term national
level of access, introducing additional strategy to use technology to enhance
barriers that set them further back in their educational outcomes in an equitable and
learning. Furthermore, the parents of Black inclusive manner.
and Hispanic students are less likely to work
jobs that allow for telecommuting, and so are • Pervasive systemic and structural racism
less likely to be present at home to assist their that impedes equitable distribution of
kids with remote learning throughout the resources to educational systems that
school day. enable them to provide a high-quality
education to communities of color and
When mandatory COVID-19-driven remote poverty. These include:
learning is lifted, schools are likely to continue
relying on technology and digital forms of • Local funding disparities.
learning to a much greater degree than ever
before. Having seen the potential of • Structurally enforced biases.
technology-supported learning in a crisis,
learning will never go back to exclusively
happening within school walls for most • Market incentives against creating
students. Additionally, since technology and solutions for all students.
digital learning are constantly evolving,
inequities for lower income communities, • Learning content is not designed for
Black, indigenous, people of color (BIPOC), diverse learners, and when developed
English learners (ELs), and students with with public funds, is not released or
special needs will become increasingly shared freely often enough.
pronounced.
• Training for LEAs, teachers, students, and
The global pandemic has uncovered how families around online learning is often
unprepared educational systems nationwide ineffective or unavailable.
were to respond to evolving and quickly
changing situations. So, we must also focus
on reorganizing education systems at all • Technical standards and platforms do not
levels to ensure that they can evolve with and do enough to enable and secure data
achieve maximum benefit from continued privacy, security, or interoperability of
improvements in technology, including learning systems and data.
analysis of costs and benefits to allocate
resources where they are most needed. The 10.6. RECOMMENDATIONS
risk in not evolving is that the system will
continue to enable those who already have To overcome these challenges and to meet
access and will further exclude those who do our goals, students, educators, and families
not, ensuring that they will be left further first need to be connected to broadband
behind. services and have access to devices for
learning in and out of the classroom. We must
10.5. KEY CHALLENGES TO invest in a national research and development
agenda to learn and act on solutions that
OVERCOME create measurably more equitable and
inclusive digital learning for the most
The key challenges to overcome to create a vulnerable populations of students. These
more equitable and inclusive digital learning solutions should be shared and implemented
environment in the United States include: with funding assistance as needed so that
students, educators, and families will have
ongoing and evolving access to improved
content, aligned tools, and more
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comprehensive support. Additionally, all Start and the Higher Education Act, he hoped,
solutions should be implemented in a way that “to bridge the gap between helplessness and
appropriate and actionable data are gathered hope for more than 5 million educationally
to inform additional research and deprived children.”113
development activities and that the privacy
and security of students, educators, and Johnson’s vision has yet to materialize for
families are guaranteed. many reasons, including lack of commitment
to policy choices outside the sphere of
10.6.1. PROVIDE FEDERAL FUNDING TO education that were meant to complement
ASSURE THAT ALL K-12 STUDENTS AND ESEA. Funding problems, some associated
TEACHERS HAVE THE CONNECTIVITY directly with ESEA and its progeny, are chief
AND DEVICES THEY NEED TO CONTINUE among them. Overall, school districts that
LEARNING OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM. serve predominantly nonwhite students
receive $23 billion less per year than school
As discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5, districts with predominantly white student
the federal government has long-supported bodies based on the total amount of funding
local schools in situations where it is clear that per student from federal and local funding
a federal commitment is necessary to create sources.114 While the challenges facing
a more equitable and inclusive education educators have only increased since the
system. That is at the heart of U.S. great recession, federal support has not kept
Department of Education’s programs that pace. Authorized funding for Title I, Part A
provide funds to elementary and secondary programs has decreased from $26 billion in
school with economically disadvantaged 2002 to $16.3 billion for the fiscal year ended
students (the Elementary and Secondary September 30, 2020.115 These funds are
Education Act (ESEA or “Title I”) and to distributed through four separate programs,
support children with disabilities (Individuals and inefficiencies and poor design result in
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)). The drastically more money going to help rich
same principle should be applied to the school districts or kids not living in poverty,
increasing importance of digital learning and rather than focusing investments on the
assuring that all students have access to that students the program was intended to help in
learning platform. In that light, Congress the first place.
should fund the LifelineEd program described
in Chapter 5 to guarantee that every K-12 Not only is money failing to reach the poorest
student and teacher, regardless of their districts or helping the poorest children in
financial circumstances, has access to those districts, but it is also not necessarily
broadband and Internet connected devices being spent effectively or strategically. Those
needed for basic and advanced schoolwork districts most in need and most severely
and teaching. underfunded may have to spend all their
funding solely on teacher salaries or basic
10.6.2. REVISE FUNDING SYSTEMS TO needs like textbooks, rather than being able
ENSURE ADEQUATE AND EQUITABLE to invest in digital learning resources or
DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES, methods, innovative curricula, or other
PARTICULARLY THOSE THAT WILL improvements that may be considered
ADVANCE DIGITAL LEARNING. luxuries rather than necessities when
operating on shoe-string budgets heavily
Ensuring equal access to education is at the dependent on local tax revenue, especially in
core of the Department of Education’s times of severe economic downturns.
mission, and has been since the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act of 1965 10.6.2.1. Target funding on areas of need
(ESEA). The ESEA has been amended and based on quantifiable technology deficits.
reauthorized many times, but with every
iteration, Title I, the section that earmarks To advance the use of digital learning to
federal funding for poor children, remains at further equitable outcomes, Congress should
the heart of the legislation and accounts for appropriate additional Title I funding in the
the lion’s share of the funds authorized under form of formula grants targeted for school
the Act.112 When President Johnson signed districts in areas with quantifiable technology
ESEA, along with several other deficits. Areas with the highest barriers to
complementary measures such as the Head online learning will need more funding, so
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additional appropriations should be based on evolved further during the 1960s with the
criteria associated with computer ownership, passage of civil rights legislation that
home Internet adoption and affordability, etc. expanded the role of the Department of
This funding should be in addition to any Education to ensure all students had equal
funding associated with ensuring students access to education.
and teachers have home broadband
connections and appropriate devices Despite the critical significance of education
(Recommendation 10.6.1.1), because areas and the persistent inequality, however, the
with quantifiable technology deficits are likely U.S. has never invested meaningfully in a
to face serious challenges in taking holistic national strategy or in R&D efforts
advantage of digital learning. Use of funds aimed specifically at improving educational
should be flexible, so long as funding is used outcomes and increasing equity the way that
to promote online learning. it has invested in other national strategic
priorities.
In addition, the U.S. Department of Education
should: The result is an extremely fragmented and ad-
hoc approach to advancing digital learning
• Require states to produce Ed Tech plans across the country. While state education
to access federal funding/technical agencies have made some progress in
assistance, even for non-technology adopting digital learning tools, as evidenced
related funding streams; by posted state-level education technology
plans and the presence of digital literacy
guidelines or standards in most states, there
• Ensure solutions focused on cultural and is still a fundamental disconnect between the
linguistic equity also consider students plans and the equitable use of technology
with special needs and vice versa; and envisioned in this chapter. Evidence also
suggests that even though states are
• Require procurement processes to investing in new technologies, they aren’t
identify open-source solutions, where necessarily investing wisely or efficiently.
possible, before opening procurement to Roughly 14,000 school districts across the
proprietary alternatives (similar to the country spend more than $13.2 billion on over
Department of Defense’s policy on open 6,000 ed-tech tools each year, but surveys
source procurement). suggest that only 15% is spent on tools that
are a good fit and implemented correctly.117
10.6.3. INVEST IN A ROBUST FEDERAL
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R&D) Several independent groups like Ed Tech
AGENDA FOCUSED ON ADVANCING Evidence Exchange or Learning Policy
MODELS OF TECHNOLOGY-EMPOWERED Institute are stepping in, with philanthropic or
TEACHING AND LEARNING THAT nominal government support, to provide
PROMOTE EQUITY AND ADVANCE guidance or highlight best practices for
OUTCOMES FOR ALL STUDENTS. certain aspects of advancing schools’ use of
ed-tech tools or strategies. But they cannot
Though not a cabinet level agency until 1980, compensate for the lack of a national,
the federal Department of Education’s goal of coordinated effort that can:
helping states establish effective school
systems by collecting information on schools • Shape policy more directly, including by
and teaching has been a core part of its working with other parts of government;
mission since the first incarnation of the
Department in 1867.
• Ensure diverse voices are involved in both
That mission took on heightened significance shaping and implementing policies;
in 1958, when Congress passed the first
comprehensive federal education legislation, • Make large scale strategic investments;
the National Defense Education Act, in and
response to the Cold War.116 In doing so,
Congress explicitly recognized the vital role • Effectively share information at scale
that education plays in national defense and
in global competitiveness. The mission
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To address chronic underinvestment at the Science Foundation, Department of
national level, there should be a Defense, National Institutes of Health, and
comprehensive National Educational the Bureau of Indian Affairs, who may
Technology and R&D Strategic Plan, focused have overlapping areas of interest, as well
on ensuring efforts across all levels of as private industry.
government are complementary and on
technological breakthroughs that have the • Establish the plan’s research agenda by
power to transform education and promote identifying priorities coordinated across
equity. all areas of federal education technology
R&D investments, particularly in the areas
10.6.3.1. The Department of Education of basic and applied research, and
should increase its in-house technical directed development efforts focused on
expertise and encourage state and local specific problems and needs in K-12
education agencies to do the same. education. The plan should also include
estimated levels of investment, a
The U.S. Department of Education should description of the mechanisms that will be
create a CTO role, reporting to the Secretary, used to implement and oversee the
to work alongside the Education Technology recommended portfolio of R&D initiatives,
Director, to advance policy and program and an explanation for how the proposed
initiatives around technology infrastructure, initiatives will advance equity.
such as broadband access, device utilization,
information security, data privacy, and data • As part of the implementation of the plan,
and systems interoperability. research and promote innovations across
the spectrum of digital and equitable
Congress and the Department of Education learning needs including content,
should incentivize states and districts to features, tools, instructional approaches,
create education specific CIO/CTO roles to etc. to create increased and more
develop strategy and coherent systems for equitable student motivation, efficacy,
equitable and inclusive technology access, and learning. Update this agenda
adoption, and systems innovation, in addition regularly to account for progress.
to Education Technology Directors to set
policies to increase utilization. 10.6.3.3. Establish technical expertise and
organizational infrastructure necessary to
10.6.3.2. Develop a National Strategic Plan implement the education technology R&D
for Education Technology Research & Strategic Plan.
Development.
Congress should consider investing $1B over
The U.S. Department of Education should: 10 years in a major educational R&D effort to
strengthen the state of educational innovation
• Oversee the creation of a strategic plan for and capability.
education technology research and
development, and work closely with key The Department of Education should provide
partners to ensure that equity remains a executive oversight and implementation
central theme of that plan. The leadership for the R&D Strategic Plan, and
Department should seek input from the Congress should invest in building additional
White House Initiative on Educational organizational capacity and technical
Excellence for Black Americans, the White expertise necessary to operationalize a
House Initiative on Educational visionary and robust R&D agenda expected
Excellence for Latinxs, the White House from this Strategic Plan. For example,
Initiative on American Indian and Alaskan Congress could authorize the Department of
Native Education, state and local leaders, Education to sponsor one or more Federally
and interested members of the public. In Funded Research and Development Centers
developing the strategic plan, the (FFRDC),118 or a separate initiative within the
Department of Education may also Department of Education, similar to either the
consider input from other federal partners, Advanced Distributed Learning Initiative in
such as Institute of Education Sciences, the Department of Defense or Advanced
National Telecommunications and Research Project Agency - Energy (ARPA-E),
Information Administration, National
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could be established within the Department of 7. Promoting and convening “plugfests” to
Education. show how curriculum and technology
tools can interoperate and create
Historically Black Colleges and Universities complete learning solutions that work for
(HBCU), Hispanic-serving Institutions (HSI), targeted student populations, creating
Minority Serving Institutions (MSI), or other coherence between curricula and delivery
universities with established expertise and tools. Plugfests are events where creators
programs focused specifically on using and designers come together to
technology to meet the educational needs of demonstrate how their content and
minority students should be selected as products can work with other content
partner laboratories or FFRDCs.119 products from other creators and
designers.
The Department of Education and any
federally funded research partners should 10.6.4. INVEST IN COHERENT,
also seek to leverage other sources of funding CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE, AND
from private philanthropic organizations, with RELEVANT ONLINE LEARNING CONTENT
oversight by the government. AND TOOLS.
The Department of Education and partner There has been a curriculum renaissance120
institutions should pursue a comprehensive over the last five years. The introduction of
approach towards promoting the R&D new standards in most states, an influx of
agenda by: cognitive science research into the
educational landscape, which emphasizes
1. Providing strategic and technical the importance of building knowledge and
assistance for content and tool conceptual understanding, and the
development funded through federal proliferation of open educational resources
funding. (OER) have all contributed to an explosion in
new materials. Several private and non-profit
2. Supporting and funding product and organizations have engaged in efforts to
design level work, through seminars, provide free or reduced cost learning content
workshops, and multi-vendor/stakeholder and tools, which are widely available to
design sprints to advance the innovation educators, families, and students. Some of
agenda. those resources are also openly licensed and
available digitally, so that educators and other
3. Procuring or developing practical organizations can improve on them and
solutions to address specific ed-tech and redistribute them for increased access.
equity problems, where the market is not
meeting specific needs. Despite increased access, teachers do not
always use those materials with all students.
4. Incorporating agile approaches to Teachers are expected to fill many roles in the
curriculum development and authoring to lives of their students and tackle all kinds of
speed up curriculum development, so that issues, while also teaching rigorous,
curricula can more quickly and easily standards-aligned content. They are more
evolve as technology evolves. often than not asked to do that with pieces of
disconnected content that are not always
5. Recognizing that open educational optimized for digital learning, a handful of
resources (OER) can be a driver for digital tools that are not integrated and which
creating more agile curriculum don’t work with the content they have
development, and encouraging the available to them, and limited support to make
development of additional OER curricular it all work together to provide a positive and
products. coherent learning experience for students.
Add to this the obstacle of having to do all of
this remotely, and it is not surprising that the
6. Recognizing that funding or developing learning gaps for students are increasing
open source, open standards, open APIs, during the COVID-19 pandemic.121
and open data can speed up and improve
the quality of technology innovation in
education. The TNTP, Inc. report, “The Opportunity
Myth,”122 describes a pernicious issue in K-12
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 133
education: Students believe they are getting fall far short of what the content and the
an education that will prepare them for life learning systems are actually capable of
after high school, but the quality of education delivering. In addition, digital learning
many of them receive fails woefully to deliver content is often designed for use in printed or
on that promise. Without the effective PDF formats, and when it is adapted into
knowledge, skills, funding, access, and interactive learning systems, its usefulness is
support to set up coherent and integrated impaired, often significantly.
digital learning systems (e.g., structures,
environments, learning management Less well-resourced schools often have to
processes), and access to and support in make do with assembled curriculum and
using high-quality instructional materials that material, manually adapting those resources
promote learning experiences which into whatever digital learning systems are
communicate that all students belong and accessible. If more learning content
can be successful (“identity safe” learning (especially openly licensed educational
experiences), teachers are set up to resources) were designed to work well within
perpetuate the opportunity myth. a variety of learning systems, more
disadvantaged students could be engaged
Additionally, there is significant and ongoing with content that works well for them.
research that has shown that learning
environments which focus on identity To satisfy the need for continued research in
safety,123 cultural responsiveness (the sense what makes curricula effective in ensuring
that a student’s unique identity and culture is improved learning outcomes for students in
seen and embraced as an asset rather than lower income communities, communities of
an obstacle), and a growth mindset can lead color, ELs, and students with special needs,
to greater self-efficacy and increased the U.S Department of Education should
motivation, engagement, and learning create centers of excellence for curriculum
outcomes.124 Relatedly, culturally responsive innovation, which exist to research and find
teaching has been shown to raise solutions to specific problems of practice for
expectations for all students and create learning content and curriculum.
cultural competence.125 Research has also
shown that having a coherent curriculum from The focus of the centers should be on product
which to teach has contributed to improved innovation research, and development of
learning.126 However, there has never been a student-interactive curriculum delivery
national investment in creating curricula that systems and tools that enable the use of
actualizes the findings of research in identity digital educational content that promotes
safety, culturally responsive teaching equitable and inclusive technology use and
practices, mindset, and curriculum identity safe learning environments. That may
effectiveness. include prototyping various online learning
platforms and features to determine which
10.6.4.1. Establish Curriculum Innovation ones provide equitable access for all
Centers Specifically Focused on Equitable students, or on what features most support
Online Learning. educators in implementing a culturally
responsive curriculum with integrity. These
Curriculum developments continue to lag centers may use openly licensed content and
technology developments. This became tools from the private and non-profit
obvious during the COVID-19 pandemic as organizations to jumpstart the work.
curriculum vendors, including several private
and non-profit vendors developing open In light of the above, the U.S Department of
educational resources, scrambled to Education should:
redesign their content. Given the lack of time,
they resorted to putting out written guidance • Establish Curriculum Innovation Centers
and relying on teachers to do the heavy lifting to catalog and demonstrate best
of actually revising the content and putting it practices, and create and share OER
into a technology delivery platform. Professional Development materials for
supporting teachers around digital
Learning content is often integrated into learning. Set up these Curriculum
learning systems in haphazard or inadequate Innovation Centers either within the
ways, resulting in learning experiences that organizational capacity set up through the
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R&D Strategic Plan, through existing Institutions (HSIs), minority-serving
FFRDC, or through State-run consortia. institutions (MSIs), and the Bureau of Indian
Affairs to create, distribute, and support the
• Convene a series of learning content implementation of high-quality, coherent
design workshops to advance the state of digital instructional materials which can be
the art on how to design and author used flexibly for different tech-enabled
content for digital platforms. learning environments and which are targeted
at improving learning outcomes for students
from lower income communities, communities
• Convene an ongoing series of learning of color, ELs, and students with special
content and systems plugfest needs.
conferences to demonstrate and explore
how content can be effectively embedded Additionally, to ensure that the curricula
into learning systems. created are able to be widely distributed and
used, those authoring the content will need to
• Fund the development, adoption, use, have increased access to culturally relevant
and advancement of data standards for texts and the rights to share those texts for
integrating learning content more usefully educational use. To create such curricula, the
into learning systems and transferring U.S. Department of Education should
content between content management establish a competitive grant program to
and among learning systems. award funding to States or a consortium of
states to create, distribute, and support the
• Develop and publish standards and best implementation of high-quality, coherent
practices for content/platforms/teaching digital instructional materials which can be
practices for technology-enabled learning used flexibly for in-person, remote, and hybrid
environments. learning, and which are targeted at improving
learning outcomes for students from lower
income communities, and black, indigenous,
• Disseminate information and make and students of color. Pursuant to this
innovations from the curriculum innovation program:
centers widely available, and tie them to
competitive grant programs for
communities interested in adopting • Grantees should create design and
methods. authoring committees of individuals from
communities most affected by digital
10.6.4.2. Build Digital Curricula Designed for inequities, and work with the curriculum
Equitable Use. innovation centers and other curriculum
and/or education technology vendors, as
There is an enormous, untapped opportunity appropriate, to create, distribute, and
to push the creation of curricula which support the digital curricula, which may
connects high quality, coherent digital include the creation of supporting digital
content with advances in developing growth products (e.g., websites, delivery
mindsets and in creating identity safe learning platforms, applications, software). The
environments that are culturally responsive. materials developed should reflect the
Additionally, the digital curricula should needs and cultures of the populations who
promote the equitable and inclusive use of use them.
technology platforms, tools, etc. for content
delivery and implementation. • Grantees should demonstrate how they
will maintain and continuously improve
In creating that curricula, the solutions should their digital curricula rapidly and
be developed by those in the communities efficiently, drawing on continued research
who are most affected by digital inequities.127 and development in how to make the
Those working with students most directly digital instructional materials more
should be empowered with the best research equitable and inclusive.
in content, product, and learning design from
the curriculum innovation centers, the support • Grantees should demonstrate to the
of experts in digital curriculum design and Department of Education how they will
development and historically black colleges fund the maintenance and continued use
and universities (HBCUs), Hispanic-Serving
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of the digital instructional materials after 10.6.4.4. Create Coherent Digital Tools that
they are released. Support the Use of Digital Curricula
Designed for Equitable Use.
Also, Congress should consider taking
legislative action to encourage copyright With the global pandemic, educators and
holders to grant educational digital rights of families are having to provide instruction
use for texts, without prejudicing their other flexibly in different types of technology-
rights. enabled learning environments. Digital tools
that educators are using must be integrated
10.6.4.3. Promote Collaboration and Sharing into the digital learning systems within
of Research to Improve Digital Curricula. schools, and they must work with the content
teachers are using. Additionally, given that
To encourage collaboration and sharing of students are often learning at school and at
research, best practices in content, product, home, students, educators, and families need
and learning design, and open-source consistently easy and open access to the
technology for wider use, there should be a digital products and tools (e.g., digital texts,
yearly convening of grantees, researchers, websites, delivery platforms, applications,
education technology specialists, and others software) that enable the effective distribution
involved in the work of the competitive grants. and implementation of the high-quality,
During this time, grantees will get the coherent digital instructional materials
opportunity to collaborate with other grantees produced through the competitive grant.
and experts to improve their products. There Without that access, the curricula go unused.
should also be a focus throughout the
competitive grants and the yearly convenings Some of those digital products and tools will
on studying the impact of the grant and be designed and created as part of the
whether it is creating more equitable and competitive grant process and should be
inclusive technology use, and whether and done using open-source technology. Some
how more equitable and inclusive technology digital products and tools will likely already
impacts learning outcomes for students from exist, and states will select them for the
lower income communities, communities of distribution and/or implementation of their
color, ELs, and students with special needs. high-quality, coherent digital instructional
materials. In these cases, it is important that
While additional research is necessary and the digital products and tools are built with
can be accomplished through the open-source technology so that they can be
development of curriculum innovation accessed for educational use or the product
centers, there is a need to make that research owners should be encouraged to make the
practical in the service of providing solutions product openly available for educational use.
for educators. As curricula are created and Equitable and inclusive use of the technology
implemented, educators who work with should be promoted by having:
students in lower income communities,
communities of color, Els, and students with • The U.S. Department of Education require
special needs can provide much needed all digital content, online learning systems,
feedback on what works and does not in light tools, and resources produced under
of the research and then the curricula can be federal funding be openly licensed as the
improved accordingly. This kind of default, with exceptions granted only with
information should be emphasized and made publicly released justification.
available as part of the yearly convening. The
Department of Education should host an • Congress appropriating funding
annual convening of grantees, researchers, incentives for video companies to open
education technology specialists that will their infrastructure to educational systems
focus on collaborating and sharing research, (whiteboards, classroom management,
best practices, content, and digital tools process, etc.).
developed as part of the competitive grant to
improve the curricular products and ensure
they reflect the needs and cultures of the
populations who use them.
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10.6.5. ENSURE STUDENTS HAVE and unreliable outcomes, despite the billions
SUPPORT FROM TEACHERS AND OTHER of dollars invested in it.129 Additionally, training
APPROPRIATELY TRAINED ADULTS. and support often focus on classroom
management or superficial details (e.g.,
As research has begun to show how much strategies for grouping, questioning
curriculum matters for learning, there has also techniques, etc.) which can be boiled down
been a shift in where to focus training and into hour-long PowerPoint presentations. This
support for educators and families.128 There is kind of training doesn’t advance teacher
now a shift from training and support in knowledge or skill enough to make a
creating content to training and support in difference for student learning. Educators
implementing content, so that all students need training on how to set up identity safe
realize the intended outcomes of the and equitable learning environments and
curriculum. structures, and how to implement content
using aligned tools in a variety of tech-
The job of the teacher is to get really good at enabled learning environments. While this
teaching, and the job of the family is to get needs to happen for current educators, there
really good at supporting students in their is a real need to ensure that those entering the
learning. However, this assumes that teaching profession are equally as equipped.
educators have access to a high-quality,
coherent digital instructional materials which • The U.S. Department of Education should
can be used flexibly for different tech-enabled provide funding to allow states to extend
learning environments, and which are the development of equitable, technology-
targeted at improving learning outcomes for enhanced teaching and learning
students from lower income communities, standards.
communities of color, ELs, and students with
special needs, the necessary digital texts that • The U.S. Department of Education should
are used with that curriculum, and the aligned provide additional funding to states to
digital products and tools needed to distribute develop and provide openly licensed
and deliver that curriculum. If these professional learning materials and
assumptions are true, then they will be better training programs specifically organized
equipped to create an equitable and inclusive to help teachers work with minority and
learning environment. disadvantaged groups.
However, that is just one part of the job of
educators and families. Educators must also • The U.S. Department of Education should
have the knowledge, skills, funding, access, provide funding to state consortia to
and support to set up coherent and integrated develop and provide openly licensed
digital learning systems (e.g., structures, professional learning resources and
environments, learning management training programs that are specifically
processes) that promote equitable and aligned to the open educational digital
inclusive technology use and promote identity curriculum used by those States.
safe learning experiences. Furthermore,
educators must have the knowledge, skills, • The U.S. Department of Education should
and support to use technology to prepare and establish a program to fund year-long
deliver curricula and support all students digital learning residency programs for
equitably. If an educator has a high-quality preservice teachers with a trained mentor
curriculum and is expected to teach that teacher, focused on providing digital
curriculum digitally with no training on how to learning for schools in lower income
use the curriculum or the associated digital communities and schools which serve a
tools, then the likelihood that educator will be majority of communities of color, ELs, and
effective in implementing that curriculum is students with special needs. Preference
low. for funding should be given to HBCUs and
HSIs.
10.6.5.1. Support educators during their
transition to digital and remote learning. • The U.S. Department of Education should
provide additional funding, advocacy,
Professional development and training for K- and support for its “Future Ready
12 public school teachers has led to uneven Leaders” initiative, to train school and
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 137
state education leaders to be more • State education and local education
knowledgeable about and effective with systems should develop communication
technology. systems and relevant content, so that they
can easily and consistently share
10.6.5.2. Support families and educators in guidance and information with families
establishing partnerships that enable greater about the digital learning content students
coherence between learning digitally at are receiving in school and how to support
home and school. student learning at home.
As we have seen with the global pandemic, • The U.S. Department of Education should
families and other adults in communities also provide funding to develop digital
play an important and expanded role in the resources for parents and educators
learning experience of students. As students around Transitional Kindergarten.
were no longer able to go to school regularly,
their homes and their communities became 10.6.5.3. Support the development and
their classrooms. As such, there must be a adoption of online platforms that connect at-
dynamic partnership among families, risk students with college students, recent
educators, schools, and educational support graduates, and others willing to act as tutors,
organizations with a focus on supporting coaches, or other supports.
student learning. There should be increased
interaction and coherence across in-school
and at-home learning (e.g., technologies, Digital platforms can support students far
tools, learning systems, content) led by beyond the day-to-day activities associated
educators and supported by families. with distance learning or online activities
Students should be able to access and use associated specifically with classroom
digital tools both in school and at home easily. instruction. Services such as one-on-one
Features like single sign-on can support this. tutoring, supplemental small-group
instruction, and personalized coaching to
encourage students to plan for life after high
Additionally, families should also have the school can play an important role in helping
access, knowledge, and support to help students succeed.
students leverage technology outside of
school, promoting equitable and inclusive
technology use. Families need clear and Individualized tutoring is a proven intervention
actionable guidance on what technologies that improves children’s educational
and digital tools are needed for learning, how competencies and increases their self-
to access them, and how to support students confidence.130 Online platforms that deliver a
in using them. States should accordingly tutoring curriculum addressing the concepts
develop and/or update digital literacy content with which students need additional time and
for students and families. Whether through support can make it easier for qualified tutors
SMS messaging or other familiar and easily to provide students with support during
accessible communication methods, families school and after hours. Other
need consistent, clear, and open access to philanthropically funded groups at the state
the guidance and information in how to level like the Tennessee Tutoring Corps were
support their learners outside of school. created specifically to help stave off the
“COVID slide” of learning loss likely to occur
as a result of the educational disruption
• The U.S. Department Education should caused by the pandemic.
provide funding to states to provide
greater coherence between the In addition to tutoring, organizations like
technologies and digital tools used at Beyond12 rely on mobile applications to
school and at home. connect students with personal coaches, and
track progress towards transitioning from high
• State education systems should update school to college and beyond.
digital literacy standards to incorporate a
focus on supporting families and digital While the technology is novel, the value of all
learning happening outside of the school these services depends primarily upon their
building. ability to connect individuals who are willing
and able, and who have access to high-
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quality tutoring content to help students who 10.6.6. FUND EDUCATIONAL-FOCUSED
need assistance. Many of the organizations TECHNOLOGY STANDARDIZATION AND
closest to at-risk students may lack funding or INNOVATION ACTIVITIES FOCUSED ON
the technical expertise needed to develop DATA USE, INTEROPERABILITY OF
those sorts of solutions. Groups with funding CONTENT, AND DIGITAL PRIVACY AND
and technical expertise, similarly, may lack SECURITY.
the access to high-quality tutoring content or
cultural connections to communities or With the immediate disruption of in-person
individuals most likely to connect well with at- instruction, vendors, educators, and families
risk students to attract individual users that have been scrambling to figure out how to
make the service valuable. navigate remote learning. One approach that
has been used is to make non-educational
The federal government can help bridge digital tools and applications available for free
these gaps by promoting existing educational use for a limited amount of time.
applications that serve at-risk students or While this has helped solve immediate access
funding the development of new services problems, these kinds of practices risk
aimed at at-risk students or groups whose creating longer term issues that could further
needs are not being met by existing solutions. perpetuate inequities in technology use.
The government can also encourage
participation from existing government For example, if educators build lessons based
employees, offer additional financial on short-term access to a digital application
assistance to the organizations operating and then that application is no longer offered
these platforms to attract individuals who can for free, will educators and families be able to
serve as tutors, coaches, or offer other afford the costs to continue using the
individual support to students. application, or will teachers have to locate
another tool and rebuild their content?
The Department of Education should support Additionally, if the applications and tools
the creation and development of platforms educators and families are using were not
that can connect at-risk K-12 students to built for educational use, do those
supplementary services like individualized applications and tools have the appropriate
tutoring or coaching by: data use, privacy, and security needed by law
for student data? Can the data gathered
• Providing financial support to grantees through those tools and applications be
who are willing to make these platforms accessed by educators and families?
available to at-risk students free of charge,
and who have the organizational capacity The security of students’ data as well as the
to attract tutors and students in need of schools’ infrastructure are an important but
the services. generally overlooked and underfunded area
of Education Technology. To start, schools,
educational support organizations (e.g.,
• Investing in the development of open- nonprofits that offer educational
source platforms that local organizations programming, tutoring organizations),
can easily white-label to create platforms educators, students, and families need to be
of their own. confident in the reliability and security of the
technology they are using for digital learning
• Hosting an online platform to help in school and at home.
students, teachers, parents, or interested
volunteers identify resources such as Inequities in student access and progress are
local organizations that provide additional often hidden in areas where data are not
support, including individualized tutoring collected, or not used effectively. The lack of
and coaching. systems interoperability, data access, and
needed standards and innovation tools often
impede the ability to serve all students, and
particularly to ensure that each student
receives the support they need.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 139
Accurate, timely data about every student is • Average costs borne by families to
vital for providing effective services, connect to digital learning opportunities
especially in large urban school systems, powerfully and persistently (by state, race,
where struggling students or students with gender, class, grade level, school type,
special needs are more easily overlooked. community and home language, special
needs, and school type).
10.6.6.1. Unlock the underutilized value of
data. • Student performance variation by
connection to powerful digital learning
Data have the potential not only to help us opportunities (by state, race, gender,
better understand how and why technology class, grade level, school type,
systems are helping students learn, but can community, and home language, special
themselves act as an intervention, targeting needs, and school type).
resources where need is greatest, the
discontinuation of strategies that are not In all of these we would be looking for the
proving fruitful, and the acceleration of those impact of equitable resourcing on the rate of
that are. But to serve this powerful role, growth, i.e., the students furthest from
several critical revisions must be made to success, who pay the least and who grow the
create better alignment and focus, to most over the same period.
strengthen the data infrastructure, and to
build necessary transparency.
Once the measure of baseline success is
possible, we need to understand how the
According to the Committee on Developing learning system infrastructure changes based
Indicators of Educational Equity from The on the investments suggested herein:
National Academies of Sciences and
Engineering and Medicine, “To be useful to
policy makers, educators, and other • Percent of teachers trained to integrate
stakeholders, two types of equity indicators tech-based, culturally responsive
are needed: (1) indicators that measure materials in their instruction.
disparities in students’ academic
achievement and attainment outcomes and • Percent of teachers effectively leveraging
engagement in schooling; and (2) indicators on-line learning as a part of their
that measure equitable access to resources classroom instruction.
and opportunities, including the structural
aspects of school systems that may impact • Percent of teachers using technology to
opportunity and exacerbate existing connect with parents on the learning
disparities in family and community contexts needs of their students.
and contribute to unequal outcomes for
students.”131
• Percent of schools and districts able to
Measuring success against the goals above achieve and maintain 100% online
will require investment in significant enrollment in district sponsored platforms.
capacities in data collection and data
integration. Understanding the benefits of the • Percent of families who are using effective
investments recommended here will require tools and resources to support their
multivariate analysis and multi-modal data children and connect with their teachers.
collection, which should include the lived
experiences of teachers, students, and • Variations of these data based on the
parents whose capacity we are looking to demographics of interest (by state, race,
expand. As a baseline, there is a need to gender, class, grade level, school type,
track change in the following rates over time: community and home language, special
needs, and school type)
• Percent of students powerfully and
persistently connected to digital learning Lastly, we need to understand whether
opportunities (by state, race, gender, changes measured in the first two groupings
class, grade level, school type, influence patterns of achievement and
community and home language, special attainment. In short, we need to see some of
needs, and school type).
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 140
the long-standing gaps in achievement and • The U.S. Department of Education should
attainment begin to close: fund data systems upgrades to school
financial and educational program
• Percent of students on grade level at 3rd systems, to enable schools to effectively
grade in reading and, mathematics. track the progress and investment in
educational services, cost, and progress
• Percent of students successfully passing of each individual student.
algebra by the end of 8th grade.
• The U.S. Department of Education should
• Percent of students meeting high school fund the development of more specialized
readiness standards by 9th grade. and capable interoperability standards to
ensure easier transfer of content and data
across technical platforms.
• Percent of students graduating on time.
• US Government entities such as the U.S.
• Percent of students graduating college Department of Education, the Federal
and career ready. Communications Commission, and other
federal agencies should collate and
• Percent of students enrolling in 2 and/or 4- publish data on their use of funds around
year colleges. technology in an easily located and
navigable website hosted by the U.S.
• Variations of these data based on the Department of Education.
demographics of interest (by state, race,
gender, class, grade level, school type, 10.6.6.2. Ensure learning data are secure
community and home language, special and private.
needs, and school type)
Students deserve privacy protections to
Additionally, to establish robust systems secure their information and protect it from
which will make it easier to collect these data: unauthorized use. While legally mandated,
information security in education is often
overlooked and underfunded.
• The U.S. Department of Education should
provide direct, competitive grant funding
for the development, adoption, use, and • The U.S. Department of Education and
advancement of data standards for state education agencies should require
electronic education records. This schools who invest in technology using
funding should include efforts to increase their funding to ensure the products they
the accuracy and the timeliness of purchase comply with Information
electronic education records. Security and Data Privacy Standards.
While not unique solutions, the Student
Data Privacy Pledge program, the Student
• The U.S. Department of Education should Data Privacy Consortium, and Project
set specific learning record Unicorn interoperability, as well as ISTE’s
interoperability targets for schools emerging Ed Tech Product standards
receiving Federal funding to enable the work, represent potential requirements
movement of learning data securely and that would assist schools in identifying
with explicit authorization, both between qualifying products.
systems within a school system, and
between school systems and states,
where appropriate. • The U.S. Department of Education should
host an ongoing series of information
security and privacy plugfest conferences
• The U.S. Department of Education should to demonstrate and showcase products
fund additional investments in State that meet information security and data
Longitudinal Data Systems to improve privacy standards, and to encourage and
data quality/accuracy, scope, security, educate vendors and educators on how to
and timeliness of the data collected by acquire, configure, and operate
these systems. technology with effective security and
privacy.
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10.6.7. IMPROVE THE ACCESS OF
STUDENTS OF COLOR AND OTHERS TO
EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCES THAT WILL
IMPROVE THEIR ABILITY TO UTILIZE THE
TECHNOLOGY.
10.6.7.1. Assure computer science is part of
every student’s educational experience.
We recommend amending the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act to add
“Computer Science” to the list of subjects for
which states create academic standards.
Currently, that list requires “mathematics,
reading or language arts, and science” to be
part of the base curriculum for all K-12
students nationwide. Computer science
should be added to the list.
10.6.7.2. Revive Rural and Minority STEM
Scholarship Program.
We recommend reviving and improving the
now-defunct “SMART grants” which were a
smaller scholarship program for students
studying STEM that ended in 2010. To do so,
the Department of Education should fund
scholarships for students of color and
students from rural communities studying
STEM in undergraduate, graduate, or
certificate programs.
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Chapter 11.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
HIGHER EDUCATION
AND A RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT
AGENDA
11.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
While colleges and universities have some of the best networks and highest levels of
connectivity in the world, problems persist. Some students, forced to study from home
or facing greater economic difficulty due to COVID-19, risk being disconnected from an
education that increasingly relies on broadband at home. A larger problem is that
colleges and universities remain an underutilized resource for digital equity and
inclusion. Colleges and universities that directly serve students negatively impacted by
failings of digital equity and inclusion often lack the resources to assist students in
developing skills to thrive in the digital economy and society. Broadband skills and
resource that are in abundance in leading universities has not been tapped to reach
locations where robust networks are absent. Research has failed to close the gaps in
performance in our current educational system with digital solutions.
11.2. VISION students, can enjoy the same benefits,
improving utilization, enhancing education,
and providing equal opportunities.
Today, some American campuses enjoy the
highest performing networks, highest
adoption rates, and most effective use of 11.3. GOALS
digital technology anywhere in the world. We
should engage knowledge transfer, so that all • All college and university students stay
colleges and universities, particularly those connected, regardless of their financial
institutions educating disadvantaged
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 144
situation and the mode of classroom infrastructure, bypassed surrounding
instruction. communities. The Internet opened new
opportunities for the universities and
• Existing and underutilized university and surrounding research parks, as well as the
college talent is used to help those campus-like settings of new Internet
institutions educating disadvantaged enterprises. But those in the urban centers
students. surrounding the campus were left out.
The time is right for colleges and universities
• Existing and underutilized university and to re-think community service, the traditional
college resources are used to help third pillar of academic life that incudes
connect unserved or underserved learning and research.
communities.
Universities and colleges can collaborate with
• Greater research on digital education and city and private sector partners to help
how it can improve outcomes. address the broadband availability, adoption,
affordability, and utilization gaps. Universities
• The development of best practices for are uniquely positioned to provide
using digital education to build a more engineering expertise, technical support, and
equitable and inclusive society. outreach and digital literacy support to
promote adoption. Universities and
community education partners also control
11.4. BACKGROUND educational content that can be leveraged to
fulfill the vision of universal learning.
11.4.1. THE OPPORTUNITY UNIVERSITIES
AND COLLEGES TO IMPROVE DIGITAL 11.4.2. THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTINUED
EQUITY AND INCLUSION. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FOR
IMPROVING OPTIONS FOR AVAILABILITY,
Viewed from the outside in, universities and ADOPTION AND UTILIZATION.
colleges encapsulate many of the problems
caused by a lack of digital equity and Federal investments in research and
inclusion. Poor relationships between development, coupled with private research
campuses and surrounding urban centers are and product development, have created the
hardly new and have grown to include gaps in robust broadband ecosystem users enjoy
digital access and opportunity. today. In the 1970s, research funded by the
Defense Advanced Research Projects
Plato’s academy set up shop outside the walls Agency (DARPA), and later the National
of the city of Athens to escape the mundane Science Foundation (NSF), played a vital role
concerns of life in the city. Centers of learning in the development of Internet protocols. In
moved back into the city when it was the late 20th century, likewise, American
convenient to share and make common companies led in the development of nearly
purpose of available infrastructure. Medieval all of the key technologies involved in digital
Oxford University, for example, appreciated networks, including digital switching
the availability of town water and early technologies, optical communications,
sewage systems. Dozens of Oxford scholars cellular communications, Internet hardware
died during an “invasion” of the campus by and Internet applications. These investments
local townspeople. Infighting and facilitated the creation of multibillion-dollar
deteriorating relations between the university companies that are global leaders in
and the two led to a spin off university called networking, search, and other Internet-based
Cambridge. businesses.
About 50 years ago, in some of American’s As with other key technologies, R&D activity
great research universities, the infrastructure drove innovation and productivity gains,
of what would become known as the Internet which aided economic growth. The National
was being designed and to connect parts of Research Council found that in the case of
the same institution in different locations, information technology (IT), “The
across town or across the country. These new unanticipated results of research are often as
networks, as with previous academic important as the anticipated results.” Further,
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 145
“[t]he interaction of research ideas multiplies Universities and colleges should ensure that
their impact,” and “[p]ast returns on federal students remain connected. Many students
investment in IT research have been enrolled at American’s colleges and university
extraordinary for both United States society now live in poverty. Half of community college
and the United States economy.” students and nearly half of four-year college
students experience food insecurity. More
America’s top research universities and than a third of college enrolled students have
laboratories continue this R&D leadership. insecure housing, many with nowhere to live
Their efforts accelerate the pace of other than a car or on the street.
innovation, placing next-generation
technology in the hands of individuals, During the pandemic, colleges and
investors, and entrepreneurs. The next universities, in part through funds provided by
generation of networks will undoubtedly lead the CARES legislation, have made hundreds
to even more exciting, unanticipated of thousands of laptops and hotspots
discoveries that will improve how people available through library lending programs,
connect, work, learn, play, and contribute keeping computing labs open, and using
online. personalized notification systems to keep all
students motivated. While these efforts are far
The broadband ecosystem—networks, from perfect, colleges and universities have
devices, and applications—has benefited demonstrated that it is possible to close the
from research breakthroughs in a variety of adoption gap through intentional policies and
areas, including networking, software, commitments to at-risk students and
semiconductors, material sciences, applied employees.
mathematics, construction, and engineering.
Continued investment and advancement in all As the state of the classroom remains
these fields, and many others, is essential for uncertain, future COVID-19 relief packages
future innovation. For U.S. companies to should ensure that all institutions of higher
continue leading in the global broadband education have the resources they need to
ecosystem, they must continue to generate keep students connected.
and benefit from scientific innovation.
11.5.2. USE UNIVERSITY RESOURCES TO
The gap between R&D returns for private HELP THOSE INSTITUTIONS SERVICING
companies, on the one hand, and those for THOSE WHO HAVE BEEN
society on the other, however, presents a DISADVANTAGED BY THE DIGITAL DIVIDE.
challenge. Government can help fill an R&D
investment gap by funding research that As discussed in Chapter 10, failings of digital
would yield net benefits to society, but that equity and inclusion affecting K-12 students is
would not earn sufficient returns to be about more than networks, devices, and other
privately profitable, or at least not on a technology. There is also a need for teachers
predictable timetable. The federal and students to utilize technology to improve
government needs to create a clear agenda educational outcomes. Institutions of higher
and priorities for broadband-related R&D education whose mission is to serve the
funding in particular. The government can disadvantaged, specifically community
also promote R&D through regulatory policies colleges and HBCUs, are generally those
that promote increased use of government most lacking in resources to help students
resources, such as by establishing research develop skills needed to thrive in the digital
centers of excellence, or allowing economy. Congress acknowledged and
experimental access to radio spectrum to acted on this concern in its December 2020
evaluate new technologies in ways that COVID-19 relief package, appropriating $285
theoretical studies and simulations cannot. million to NTIA to for a grant program for
HBCUs, Tribal Colleges or Universities (TCU),
11.5. RECOMMENDATIONS a minority-serving institution, or their
respective consortiums, for the purchase of
broadband Internet access service, or any
11.5.1. KEEP ALL STUDENTS eligible equipment, or to hire and train
CONNECTED WITH FREE TECHNOLOGY information technology personnel.
LOAN PROGRAMS FOR STUDENTS.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 146
That amount, however, will not be sufficient to together to discuss how to continually
fully address the need. Further, community improve on the effectiveness of their efforts.
colleges have not received new funding. We The project could be housed in the Digital
need to supplement Congressional efforts by Equity and Inclusion Office, discussed in
applying underutilized resources in other Chapter 4.
institutions of higher education, particularly
the technical expertise of faculty and 11.5.3. USE UNIVERSITY RESOURCES TO
students, to address unmet needs. HELP CONNECT COMMUNITIES WHERE
CONNECTIVITY REMAINS A PROBLEM.
11.5.2.1. Create A National Urban Service
Education Project (NUSEP). As discussed in Chapter 3, our country has a
significant availability gap. The Plan proposes
NUSEP would advance a new role for numerous methods for closing that gap.
America’s colleges and universities,
encouraging them to scale up their But it may be that there are areas where
involvement with and commitment to assisting neither market forces nor government support
K-12 institutions in improving utilization of will fully close the gap. In those areas, we
digital tools. The project would create a should consider whether, in addition to or as
network of National Service Universities, and alternative, there are university resources that
a coalition of university partners, HBCUs, can be called upon. America’s colleges and
community colleges and national urban universities are among the most connected
organizations, working together to design, “cities” in America. When an institution
promote, and support scalable and acquires property around its campus for
sustainable adoption practices informed by housing or other services, the
the needs and priorities of those it serves. communications network is often extended
beyond the traditional boundaries to connect
The project would build on existing these new assets.
infrastructure that encourages students to
perform public service and otherwise Likewise, universities and colleges who are
supports intentional and sustainable now extending Citizens Band Radio Services
participation in community life by colleges (CBRS) networks, using shared spectrum, to
and universities by extending their physical support the wireless needs of the campus and
facilities and program offerings. For example, extend wireless beyond the traditional
dental medicine students may participate in campus. Low-powered wide area radio
community dentistry curriculum, and provide networks (LoRa) are specifically designed to
oral health sealants to all school-aged extend research, monitoring, and the
children in a local metropolitan school district. burgeoning Internet of Things networks that
Social work departments are co-locating in touch both the campus and extend well
public housing facilities and mental health beyond it. Millimeter Wave mesh wireless
facilities. Engineering students and fashion networks are used by campuses to support
design students are setting up techshops, point-to-point (connecting one building to
fablabs, and hackerspaces embedded in the another) or multi-point (one building to more
local community. College clubs may likewise than one building) at very high speeds.
support Girls Who Code, or offer computing
classes to those living in homeless shelters to In addition, we note that the broadband
help them apply for public housing. service levels we expect to become
Community service learning programs offer ubiquitous will not serve every need. It is likely
college students an opportunity to assist small that some kinds of institutions, such as those
local businesses get online and set up e- providing STEM education or health care,
commerce sites. Business and economic may need upgraded or otherwise different
students are partnering to deliver digital kinds of connectivity.
financial literacy to residents of senior citizen
facilities. Every major research university is using tools
known as software defined networking to
The project would build on these efforts, but provision different kinds of networks for
provide a national platform through which different kinds of users with different attributes
programs can be evaluated, best practices across the campus. As an example, the
can be identified, and practitioners can come network needs of a research lab working on
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high energy physics is very different from the insights on the potential and risks of fully
needs of students majoring in English. immersive, digitally remote learning into the
Software defined networking allows providers 21st century. The time is right to investigate
to provide virtual “swim lanes” unique to the our capacity to leverage human knowledge,
specific needs of different user groups. augmented by the Internet, and mediated
through both human and machine
Using these and other resources, interactions. The academic research
technologically advanced, colleges and community, in partnership with HBCUs and
universities should partner with other public community colleges, working across
sector technology leaders along with legacy, disciplines including cognitive science and
incumbent, and new entrants in the educational technology research, should be
communications marketplace, to assure that engaged in documenting, assessing, and
specialized needs for institutions serving low recommending how we preserve and
income and communities of color, including advance the art and science of learning.
HBCUs, and community college, obtain the Particular attention should be paid to digital
networks they need to advance digital equity tools that can help overcome persistent
and inclusion. performance gaps that have characterized
educational outcomes in our current system.
11.5.4. FOCUS RESEARCH ON
UNDERSTANDING HOW DIGITAL 11.5.5. UNDERSTAND AND HONOR BEST
EDUCATION CAN IMPROVE OUTCOMES PRACTICES FOR USING DIGITAL
AND OVERCOME PERSISTENT EDUCATION TO BUILD A MORE
PERFORMANCE GAPS. EQUITABLE AND INCLUSIVE SOCIETY.
The pandemic forced educators across the The COVID-19 pandemic tested our
country to flip the entire education delivery educational institutions as never before.
model to remote everything. Key lessons Many efforts, understandably, were
regarding availability and adoption across the disappointing, but some schools,
education landscape were learned, often administrators, and teachers seized the
painfully. One major and largely moment to create effective platforms for
unanticipated challenge was the absence of digital education.
a 21st century pedagogy for teaching 100
million learners, based entirely on a live To recognize that achievement, the White
remote model. Once a vaccine is widely House should convene a ceremony for
deployed, we will likely be faced with new America’s Great Teachers During the COVID-
questions regarding classroom experiences. 19 Pandemic, nominated by students and
Should be go back to the previous approach, institutional leadership, honoring their
support the continuation of 100% live remote commitment, innovation, and resilience. The
offerings, or evolve a hybrid model based on White House and OSTP, in partnership with
the insights of educators and the preferences NSF and other agencies and private
of families and their students? The response companies, has previously used its
to that question the coming years may be as convening power to advance and celebrate
important as any development in education STEM education through White House
for the last century. Olympiads and the like. As the country works
its way through the pandemic, the White
To help resolve these issues, the House should similarly recognize urban
Administration should commission the teachers, rural community teachers,
President’s Council of Advisors on Science elementary school, middle school, high
and Technology (PCAST) and the National school, community college, and university
Research Council to urgently assess and teachers exemplifying the best of human
present the potential for 21st century, ingenuity, adaptation, and commitment to the
technology-enhanced, adaptive, and craft of teaching.
personalized learning opportunities, based on
lessons learned from the global pandemic. It
is now twenty years since the publication of
Bransford et al’s How People Learn: Brain,
Mind, Experience, and School, which
presaged the need for comprehensive
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11.5.6. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT In addition, the development and rigorous
SHOULD CONTINUE TO FOSTER THE evaluation of technology-enabled solutions is
DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH likely to be characterized by high fixed costs
NETWORKS AND BROADBAND TESTBEDS but low marginal costs—meaning that up-
THROUGH A CLEAR R&D FUNDING front costs may be substantial, but that, once
AGENDA THAT IS FOCUSED ON DIGITAL developed, the resulting tools can be
NETWORKS, EQUIPMENT, SERVICES, AND deployed widely and cheaply. Government
APPLICATIONS, WITH A PARTICULAR social spending is not generally organized to
FOCUS ON DIGITAL EQUITY AND support scalable applications. Funding is
INCLUSION. historically provided as a block or formula
grant to states. States in turn then typically
11.5.6.1. Support efforts to identify, develop, provide smaller amounts to local service
test, and deploy applications of digital providers. There is no national approach to
technologies that could foster economic and developing scalable applications.
social mobility.
There are, however, examples of how such an
As discussed in Chapter 8 on workforce approach could pay significant dividends.
development, there is a mismatch between Over the last decade, DARPA sponsored the
the jobs people from communities of color development of a digital tutor by a Silicon
and low-income communities often have Valley firm that uses AI to model the
training to do and the jobs of the future. In that interaction between an expert and a novice.
light, the government should seek to identify, Navy recruits who use the tutor to learn IT
develop, test, and deploy applications of systems administration can outperform Navy
digital technologies that foster economic and experts with 9 or more years of experience.
social mobility, including development of a The firm believes that, with an investment of
technology-enabled, short-term workforce $40 million, they could adapt their technology
training that can enable low-income workers to dramatically improve the performance of
to obtain the skills they need for higher-paying students who are currently failing 8th grade
jobs. math. Although this is the kind of experiment
worth doing, the Department of Education
There are several barriers to such an effort. does not have the capacity to support it.
The federal government currently undertakes
significant investments aimed at harnessing 11.5.6.2. Support R & D efforts in developing
science and technology to achieve some alternatives to current network architecture,
goals (national security, health, energy, particularly relating to 5G.
space, basic science), but not others
(education, workforce development, One of the most promising developments in
economic and social mobility, racial broadband is the deployment of 5G mobile
disparities). As a result, agencies like HUD, networks. Over time, 5G holds the promise of
Education, Labor, and the human service greatly improving the coverage and
components of HHS have little or no capacity availability of broadband networks, increasing
to engage with researchers and competition and reducing costs to
entrepreneurs to develop and deploy consumers.
breakthrough applications of technology that
would advance equity and inclusion. 5G technology can also be used to improve
both the character and quantity of jobs in the
Further, while there are notable private and United States. One promising example
philanthropic efforts offering online education involves the development of Open Radio
and training, the private sector systematically Access Networks (ORAN). Today, mobile
underinvests in applications of technology operators rely exclusively on closed, end-to-
that serve low-income communities. For end Radio Access Networks (RAN), hardware
example, there are currently approximately 36 and software primarily supplied by non-
million adults reading at the third-grade level American companies. The current RAN
or below, yet no private enterprise has Architecture is based on proprietary
committed itself to developing tools to solve interfaces, which increases the costs of
that problem. deployment and upgrades. Industry has
begun to coalesce around a different
approach, which utilizes a non-proprietary,
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multi-vendor ORAN, an approach that has
already demonstrated its ability to lower
capital and operational costs. That in turn,
can improve the economics for closing the
availability gap, enabling broader deployment
and adoption by lowering the costs to build
and therefore the price to use.
The federal government can support and
accelerate the ORAN effort through R & D
efforts including the following:
11.5.6.2.1. Create an innovation fund to spur
R&D and deployment based on open,
interoperable standards, including ORAN,
and software-based wireless technologies.
To accelerate the development of ORAN, the
federal government could, as it has done with
other technologies, create an innovation fund
that would help the private sector create
viable 5G alternatives from all ends of the
supply chain, while at the same time laying the
foundation for increased employment in the
United States. Such a fund could be
managed by NTIA, with input from the
Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DARPA), the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) and the
FCC, among others.
11.5.6.2.2. Design a program to incentivize
investment and job creation in the U.S. by
offering R&D credits and other incentives for
network technology suppliers, including
incentives to contract with minority owned
enterprises.
As has been true of other industries where
global leadership began with federal
government support, there is an opportunity
to improve the competitiveness of the U.S. in
next-generation mobile networks based on
targeted incentives to build local capacity.
Policymakers should include in such efforts
specific incentives for contracting with
minority owned enterprises.
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Chapter 12.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
GENERAL
GOVERNMENT
SERVICES
12.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
As documented in Chapters Three and Four of this Plan on the availability and adoption
gaps, digital equity and inclusion requires all Americans to have networks available to
their communities, the means to afford broadband and the skills necessary to use it. But
it also requires that those providing services to low-income and communities of color
also have the necessary digital tools to provide those services in an effective manner.
There are a myriad of ways that government could be more effective in delivering such
services but, unfortunately, many government IT systems are outdated, government
budgets are constrained in upgrading and maintaining digital infrastructure, government
agencies do not face competitive pressures that force private sector actors to stay on
the cutting of digital services and to prioritize citizen-centric experiences.
These problems all result in a lack of addition, there are opportunities, such as by
innovation and poorer service that negatively creating APIs to enable non-governmental
impacts all Americans, but they have a organizations to link Americans to services, to
particularly problematic impact on those who better serve low-income and communities of
depend more on government services. color that our country has utilized.
Further, there several government technology
shortfalls, such as with mobile transfer 12.2. VISION STATEMENT
payments and mobile applications that
disproportionately affect lower income
persons and communities of colors who rely We should have our government institutions
more on mobile phones than the general improve their online services to offer solutions
population. The current situation also creates on par with the best private sector actors,
a data divide, where certain communities do where competition drives continuous
not have sufficient data collected about them, innovation. The government should take
creating social and economic inequalities. In advantage of digital technology to make it
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easier for all persons, but particularly those Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, many
from low-income communities and federal government agencies have been
communities of color, to understand and pursuing digital strategies to improve
benefit from the full range of government government service delivery and
services, interact with those services, such as organizational efficiency. Unfortunately,
in making or receiving payments, and in governments at all levels often fail to meet the
enabling non-government organizations to standards set by the private sector or
assist Americans receive the help they need. leverage the full potential of emerging
The government should also collect data that technologies to deliver better and more
fairly represents the activity of all Americans, efficient services. There are several reasons
not just those currently online. this is the case.
12.3. GOALS First, many government IT systems are
outdated. The Government Accountability
Office (GAO) has identified multiple federal
• Surveys should reflect that Americans are government IT systems that are more than 30
as satisfied with their interactions with years old, with some over 50 years old.132
government digital interactions as they Another GAO analysis found that only about
are with the best private sector actors. 11 percent of federal IT systems run in the
cloud.133 One recent analysis found that the
• In order to improve usability and measure federal government had more than 930 million
use, by the end of 2021, all federal and lines of code using more than 70 obsolete
most state and local government programming languages, like COBOL and
agencies should monitor and report Fortran.134 These systems not only present
metrics about their website performance significant security risks, but they also can be
to a public dashboard. difficult and expensive to maintain, especially
when agencies cannot find programmers with
this experience or must pay a premium for
• By the end of 2022, interactions with their services. GAO sampled 10 legacy
federal government websites should be systems in the federal government and found
as easy to do on a mobile device as on that they cost $337 million per year just to
laptop. maintain.135 These systems make it harder for
government agencies to provide the kind of
• By the end of 2022, all government forms seamless, online experience citizens expect.
should be able to be accessed and filled
out online. Second, agencies typically do not receive
sufficient funding to invest in necessary IT
• The government should end the data upgrades, let alone state-of-the-art innovation
divide by collecting data that fairly reflects in adopting new IT systems and applications
the activity of all Americans, not just those and using them in cutting-edge ways.
currently online. Federal agencies have massive IT budgets,
but most of this funding goes to operations
and maintenance: “keeping the wheels from
12.4. THE CURRENT SITUATION falling off.” The federal government spent
more than $90 billion on IT in 2019, but 80
Broadband provides access to critical percent of these expenses went to operating
government information and services, such as and maintaining existing systems, up from
obtaining reliable health information, applying around two-thirds a decade earlier.136
for and receiving government benefits, Upgrading IT systems requires substantial
searching for community news and activities, investments, even if they reduce operating
and accessing voting resources. Many costs in the long-run, and appropriators at all
government agency leaders recognize that levels of government usually prefer to commit
citizens and businesses have grown funds to other purposes.
accustomed to high-quality digital services in
the private sector and increasingly expect the Third, government agencies do not face
same from the public sector, whether it is on competitive pressures that force private
their mobile device or personal computer. sector actors to stay on the cutting of digital
services and to prioritize citizen-centric
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experiences—people do not move to another While all helpful, these initiatives have had
jurisdiction because their government’s relatively little funding, as has been the case
website is lousy.137 In contrast, when a private in most states and localities.
sector firm fails to effectively embrace the
Internet, it loses market share, its profits
shrink, and it may go out of business. That 12.5. RECOMMENDATIONS
focuses the mind of business leadership. As
a result, the bar for excellence is relatively low To improve online government services, as
and government agencies tend to lag in well as government adoption of digital
effective digital adoption, which affects their technologies more broadly, there are several
performance and how citizens feel about things governments should do. We have
these government institutions. And all too organized these into three sections.
often, online or “e-government” services are
organized around the interests and needs of 12.5.1. EMBED INNOVATION IN
the particular agency, rather than the citizen GOVERNMENT.
or business user. To take one example,
Montgomery County, Maryland was named At the core of improving digital government is
the top digital county in the United States in innovation. Americans experience innovation
2019, yet its citizens rate their experiences on every day, and they expect continued
county websites as mediocre, at best. But, innovation. But innovation is hard and is often
compared to other counties, Montgomery not seen as essential to accomplishing the
County received top marks.138 mission of government. As a result, it is as if
the government is living in a 20th-century
Moreover, government services must be analog world full of bureaucracy, paper, and
usable for everyone cannot merely cater to a delay, with users of federal services suffering
target market. Governments must build from higher costs, less functionality, and lower
digital experiences that can be used by the quality.
less literate, less digitally literate, non-English
speakers, and citizens of all ages, There are several unique challenges that
backgrounds, and disabilities. This makes make innovation in government more difficult
usability and user testing even more important than in the private sector. Federal agencies
for government products at all levels. suffer from all the limitations large businesses
Unfortunately, government products suffer from—including bureaucracy and
frequently lag private-sector equivalents in middle-manager resistance—plus a host of
terms of usability and user testing. This is why other challenges unique to government. First,
usability is the first goal of this chapter and is it is harder for older organizations to innovate,
featured across multiple recommendations. because innovation would require
challenging a status quo that, for federal
Recently enacted bipartisan federal agencies, is decades old. In addition,
legislation has prioritized efforts to digitize compared to businesses, agencies have
government: the 21st Century Integrated limited funds to pursue novel ideas. Finally,
Digital Experience (IDEA) Act requires unlike private companies, agencies face no
government agencies to produce modern, competition that will take their market away if
mobile-friendly websites, mobile applications, they do not innovate, but they do face
and online forms; the Modernizing consequences if they try to innovate and fail.
Government Technology (MGT) Act This means senior government leaders have
established the Technology Modernization little incentive to innovate, and even
Fund, albeit initially with only around $100 significant disincentives to do so, therefore
million to fund IT modernization projects in opportunities to pursue digital innovation get
federal agencies; and the Open, Public, short shrift.
Electronic and Necessary (OPEN)
Government Data Act mandates federal While there are many steps that government
agencies to publish information online, using can take to pursue digital innovation, these
standardized, machine-readable data steps would be strengthened by embedding
formats.139 innovation into the DNA of government itself.
By transforming itself through a combination
of bottom-up efforts that foster innovation and
top-level leadership that encourages and
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prioritizes innovation, the federal government Change agents are key drivers of innovation
can improve the lives of Americans, boost in many organizations. While many private
productivity, and restore faith in government. sector firms seek to embed change agents in
their companies, doing this in government
12.5.1.1. Establish a position of Chief can be a struggle. One program to address
Innovation Officer within the White House. this challenge is the Presidential Innovation
Fellows (PIF). The PIF program brings in a
The major challenge in transforming the diverse group of product designers,
federal government into an innovation-based engineers, and executives with industry
enterprise is that there is no one who “owns” expertise and entrepreneurial perspectives to
the challenge. Presidents do not have the pursue digital innovation in the federal
time or usually the inclination to focus on government. This program is an important
innovation. And they face little electoral avenue from bringing in outside talent but is
consequence for not innovating. If voters relatively small with only around 20 individuals
must fax in an employment form to the Office per year entering the program.140 To rapidly
or Personnel Management (OPM) instead of increase the rate of digital innovation, the next
emailing it, this issue likely won’t be the key administration should increase the program to
one that swings their votes. As a result, issues an annual new cohort of at least 100
of innovation are relegated to the second tier, individuals and maintain this new rate going
with agencies generally having leeway to call forward.
their own shots. At the same time, political
appointees running agencies all too often In addition, we recommend that the
ignore the innovation agenda in favor of a Administration consider adding a new
more front-facing political agenda. Why do intergovernmental element to the expanded
the hard work of improving the internal Presidential Innovation Fellows Program.
operations of an agency when the average While federal government services are
tenure of political appointees is just two-and- important, many citizens witness government
a-half years? In short, no one is on the bridge most frequently at a local level. When it
steering the federal “ship” toward innovation. comes to innovation (performance
management, process improvement, digital
To solve this, the next administration should services, open data, replacing legacy
establish a chief innovation officer (CINO) systems), there is high variability across city
whose responsibility would be to coordinate and county governments in the United States.
and drive innovation within the federal Presidential Innovation Fellows could provide
enterprise. The CINO would complement the remote and in-person project-based
chief technology officer (CTO), whose role consulting to local governments seeking
should be focused on supporting advice on best-in-class e-gov
technological innovation in the broader implementations that could then be shared
society and economy, and the federal chief with other jurisdictions. This resource could
information officer (CIO), whose job is to focus be invaluable, especially to more rural or
on the federal IT enterprise. The CINO would resource-strapped areas who have the
work closely with the CIO but would not political will to innovate but lack the time and
necessarily be a tech-centric role. For expertise to start.
instance, if the CINO is tasked with leading a
cross-agency process improvement project 12.5.1.3. Establish a bottom-up innovation
to streamline services for low-income working tool for federal employees.
mothers, the CINO would leverage process
improvement, human-centered design Frontline workers often generate important
practices, and other innovation methods to new ideas for how an organization should
define and tackle the challenge—some operate. Unfortunately, the federal
solutions pursued would involve digital government is not well-designed to harness
government tools and some might be ideas from these workers. It still by and large
nontechnical. embraces a hierarchical management
culture, where frontline workers’ job is to
12.5.1.2. Increase the size of the perform, not innovate. A survey by the
Presidential Innovation Fellows Program. Partnership for Public Service and the Hay
Group found that just 39 percent of federal
employees felt that creativity and innovation
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were rewarded.141 And according to a recent The private sector often has valuable
survey by Eagle Hill Consulting, 72 percent of knowledge and extensive expertise about
federal employees say their agencies rarely or potential solutions to problems in government
never seek their ideas for improving their agencies, but the process of proposing new
agency, while half say that they don’t know ideas to the federal government is complex
how to submit ideas to their agencies.142 and opaque to many outsiders. This prevents
agency leaders from learning about potential
But the emergence of powerful and scalable solutions to problems that are common across
social-networking technologies could allow government. To address this issue, the next
federal workers to easily engage in administration should create a process to
generating innovation ideas. The OMB allow individuals in the private sector to apply
should develop a tool to enable any federal to present digital solutions to a panel of OMB
employee to propose innovation ideas, officials, who could then work with agencies
especially for the better digital delivery of to ensure relevant solutions are considered in
services, in a structured format. In reviewing the procurement process.
these ideas, the focus should be on ideas that
can be implemented across government, not 12.5.1.6. Allow agencies to divert a small
just a single agency. The initiative could be share of their budgets to innovation projects.
akin to an internal challenge.gov.
Agencies need funds for innovation. For an
12.5.1.4. Expand the number of innovation agency that truly wants to innovate, most have
“skunk works” in federal agencies. limited capital for internal “venture” investing,
and many lack the ability to quickly prototype,
Because innovation in government is not a refine, fail, and try again, because it can be
key electoral issue, it is often deprioritized. almost impossible to get sign-off on new
Government agencies can accelerate projects quickly. To solve this, Congress
innovation by creating dedicated spaces to should allow agencies to allocate a small
develop and debate ideas that can solve share of their operating budgets to serve as
challenges and create new approaches to an internal innovation seed fund, so they can
agency practices. Pioneered by Lockheed start pilot projects more easily. In particular,
Corporation in the 1950s, several major agencies should prioritize projects that deliver
corporations have created “skunk works”— better government services or improve
separate organizational entities not government productivity. The authority could
constrained by the dominant corporate be set to expire after five years, at which point
mindset or rules. The idea behind skunk GAO could assess the results.
works is to create a dedicated space, less
encumbered by the day-to-day concerns of 12.5.2. IMPROVE GOVERNMENT SERVICE
providing services or products, as well as the DELIVERY.
rules and routines governing companies.
Many of these skunk works are not just Digital technologies offer many opportunities
focused on identifying and launching new to improve government services. Indeed, the
ideas, but on killing old ones. For example, widespread availability of broadband and
the National Security Agency (NSA) has an mobile Internet means that government
internal accelerator called “Incubation Cell” services can always be accessible, allowing
that views its mission as killing bad ideas for more convenience and flexibility.
because they will otherwise persist. A few However, agencies should continue to
agencies, such as the NSA, CIA, and HHS, improve their online services to offer solutions
have skunk works-like efforts. However, the on par with the best private sector actors,
next administration should establish a pilot where competition drives continuous
program where four or five additional innovation.
agencies establish skunk works focused on
disruptive digital innovation within their To start, agencies should meet basic
operations. standards such as ensuring every website
loads quickly, meets all accessibility
12.5.1.5. Establish a digital innovation ideas requirements, and is optimized for both
panel within OMB. mobile devices. Moreover, they should
ensure every form is digital, allowing for
electronic data entry, signing, and
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submission. The federal government should and accessibility requirements. Through the
also require its internal teams and vendors sprint process, agencies can identify the
undertake representative UX/UI (user underlying technical or functional causes of
experience/user interface) testing be done these issues and determine the best
before web products are launched or approach to mitigate them. This approach to
revamped. problem solving is widely used in product
development and allows for rapid, iterative
Unfortunately, more than two decades after responses to known issues. Addressing
the federal government started on its digital security weaknesses quickly is especially
journey, many have still not even prudent given the threats that cyberattacks
accomplished these basic steps. And the pose to the U.S. government. The U.S. Digital
track record of many state and local Service playbook offers recommendations for
governments is no different. This means iterative product design that agencies can
agencies have a significant opportunity for use as a starting point to launch these
improvement. First, they should all receive sprints.144
the resources needed to meet these basic
standards. Second, they should develop 12.5.2.3. Improve automated and
roadmaps to start leveraging emerging personalize online government customer
technologies like artificial intelligence, the support.
Internet of Things, augmented reality and
virtual reality (AR/VR), and blockchain to offer One of the major opportunities to improve
next-generation e-government services. service in government is by providing more
automated and personalized online
12.5.2.1. Monitor and report metrics about experiences. In particular, government
federal agency website performance to a agencies can use automation technologies
public dashboard. including machine learning, robotic process
automation, and chatbots to deliver faster and
As noted, too many federal websites perform better services. For example, online chatbots
poorly compared to the best-in-class private leverage technologies like natural language
ones.143 The federal government should better processing and analytics to answer questions
track website metrics to promote agency from users. Multilingual chatbots could prove
accountability. OMB should require that to be particularly helpful to help non-English-
federal agencies participate in the Digital speaking populations navigate government
Analytics Program (DAP) hosted by GSA, and resources, such immigration services.
OMB and GSA should expand DAP to include Similarly, robotic process automation can
additional metrics, such as page-load streamline routine services, such as
speeds, mobile friendliness, and automatically processing an email request.
accessibility. The government also should
consolidate the data it collects on federal These technologies not only expedite
websites into a single public dashboard. government services for the end user, but
Since most website tests can be automated, they also make government significantly more
OMB should mandate that each agency efficient by freeing up government staff from
regularly test its websites against each of routine activities and allowing them to focus
these metrics and provide the data to the on higher-value work. For example, if all state
public dashboard. States should mandate unemployment insurance agencies had
the same kind of measures, perhaps adopted this technology prior to the
collected by an organization like the National pandemic, they likely would have been able
Association of State CIOs (NASCIO). to handle many more transactions more
effectively. For this reason, federal, state, and
12.5.2.2. Launch a website modernization local IT investments should focus on
sprint to fix known problems with federal increasing productivity and online service
websites. through digital transformation and
automation.
Many federal agencies have known problems
with their websites but lack clear solutions to 12.5.2.4. Expand use of user-centric design
resolve them. OMB should direct agencies to interfaces.
launch a series of “sprints” to address known
problems, especially failures to meet security
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Virtually all best-in-class private sector Many government events—conferences,
companies that depend on the Internet for panel discussions, and speeches—take
survival spend considerable amount of money place all over the country. For most
and time improving the design of the user Americans, attending these events in person
interfaces of their websites to make it easy for is not an option, especially with the pandemic.
users to find what they want. They leverage While many federal agencies put some or all
design-thinking processes to immerse of their events online through streaming video,
themselves in the customer experience which they do this inconsistently and using a variety
allows them to develop and test online of platforms, many with significant capacity
services that meet the specific needs of their restrictions which limits their potential
customers.145 For example, the financial audience. Moreover, some of these platforms
services and tax software company Intuit are not accessible, such as not enabling live
employs individuals with a variety of skills to automatic captioning when manual
“design for delight” by taking steps to deeply captioning is not provided. To address this
understand the needs of their users and problem, OMB should establish video
conduct user testing to make decisions based streaming best practices for all public
on actual user behaviors.146 The U.S. Digital government events and provide agencies
Service has developed a comprehensive web with funding to implement these
design framework for federal agencies, and requirements. Federal agencies should no
while some 200 agencies have adopted this longer procure event video streaming
modern code base, many more have not.147 services from contractors that do not meet
The next administration should require federal these best practices.
agencies to adopt this standard for all new
websites. In addition, states should either 12.5.2.7. Launch a federal website
adopt the federal codebase or pool their consolidation initiative.
resources, perhaps through NASCIO, to
develop similar code libraries that they can There are so many federal government
deploy across similar services (e.g., websites that finding the right information, or
employment services, parks, etc.). up-to-date information, can be a major
challenge. While it is important to provide
12.5.2.5. Establish desktop and mobile comprehensive information about
page-load speed benchmarks for websites. government agencies in an accessible online
format, this complex system of agency-
Users will expect government websites and affiliated websites complicates the user
apps to load at speeds similar to their private experience and reduces the efficiency of
sector counterparts. But many local, state, digital services. OMB should launch a
and federal agencies have yet to optimize website consolidation initiative with the goal of
their websites to ensure they load quickly on eliminating and consolidating duplicative or
desktops and mobile devices. This could unnecessary websites. Additionally, each
further slow development and adoption of newly created website should have a planned
digital government services as users will find life cycle, which sets a specific date when it
less value in online alternatives that they see should be removed and archived or renewed
as inconvenient. The federal government and refreshed. The same planning
already has established standards and best mechanism should be employed for old
practices for federal websites based on government websites.
consumer convenience, accessibility, and
security. Given that the majority of federal 12.5.2.8. Optimize government websites for
websites still need to significantly improve mobile use.
their page-load speeds, OMB should work
with the federal CIO to develop federal As with other web services, government
guidelines on page-load speed across website visitors do not necessarily use a
devices. And state and local CIOs should do desktop computer to access them. During
the same. the summer of 2020, half of all visits to
government websites participating in the
12.5.2.6. Establish video streaming best Digital Analytics Program used mobile
practices for all public government events. devices.148 Not only are a significant portion of
visitors using mobile browsers; for around 20
percent of Americans, mobile devices are
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their only form of home Internet access.149 base their e-filing systems off the Business
Despite the demand for mobile-friendly Services Online program provided by the
websites, many government websites are not Social Security Administration, which
optimized for mobile use, which excludes a provides several services, such as allowing
significant portion of the population, employers to electronically complete and file
particularly from low income and communities up to 50 W-2 forms through its website. And
of color who rely more on mobile devices than if agencies want to offset the costs of building
the general population, from using web- an e-filing system or processing scanned
based government services. Government paper filings, they can do so by charging fees
agencies should ensure all websites are for government customers to obtain and file
mobile-friendly to make these services more paper forms. This will both fund the
accessible to the communities that need development of new systems and cut costs by
them. This includes informational website discouraging filers from using the more
pages as well as web forms or other expensive paper-based filing options.
interactive elements.
12.5.2.11. Create an “offline mode” for
12.5.2.9. Expand the use of mobile government apps to allow use when not
payments. connected.
Compared to other developed economies, Some people, such as those in rural areas, do
contactless payment adoption in the United not always have full-time access to the
States has been relatively slow, but concerns Internet. Others, particularly in low income
about spreading disease are changing this: and communities of color, may only connect
60 percent of users report feeling more to the Internet through public Wi-Fi hotspots.
comfortable making contactless payments Government agencies should design apps
now than before the pandemic.150 Greater with an “offline mode” that would, for example,
adoption of mobile payments would allow allow individuals to complete a form offline,
individuals to make payments without making but then submit the results when they are
physical contact with others or other devices, back online. These would also allow
reducing the risk of transmitting infections individuals to work when they are offline, such
during the pandemic. While many high- as on an airplane. Many government
contact government services, such as transit, websites require an active connection which
are provided by state and local authorities, limits the utility of these apps for individuals
the federal government can provide funding with sporadic connectivity.
and best practices to encourage adoption of
these technologies, including working with 12.5.2.12. Mandate the use of Login.gov
private sector payments systems innovators. across all federal government services.
In addition, while some states have adopted
mobile payments for electronic benefits GSA has developed Login.gov as a shared
transfer (EBT) programs like the service for federal agencies to use to
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program authenticate users to online services. Not
(SNAP) and the Special Supplemental only does this simplify the authentication
Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and process for users and provide a single trusted
Children (WIC) in ways that particularly authentication service for both users and
benefit low income and communities of color, developers, it also allows agencies to replace
others have not, and the federal government outdated methods for remote verifying the
should expand these programs. identity of online users. Many agencies rely
on “knowledge-based verification” where
12.5.2.10. Make all government forms users must provide certain information from
digital. the credit files about themselves to prove their
identity. However, since many individuals
Given the unnecessary costs involved in have had sensitive personal information
ordering, sending, preparing, and filing paper stolen from data breaches, this method is not
and non-fillable electronic forms, all federal reliable. Instead, services like Login.gov use
agencies, including the IRS, should upgrade more secure methods, such as verifying
their automated processing systems so they physical credentials like a driver’s license or
can receive fillable electronic forms and passport, or verifying someone’s possession
implement an e-filing system. Agencies can of a mobile device with a cell phone carrier.151
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While many government agencies have government services into their own
begun using the Login.gov service, it is not yet applications, while ensuring that consumer
universally adopted. The next administration data and privacy remains protected. For
should require all government agencies to example, rather than requiring people to use
move to this newer platform to ensure citizens a government website to make reservations
can securely and easily access government and purchases at state and national parks,
services. GSA should expand the program to open APIs would enable qualified travel
also allow state and local governments to join websites to allow individuals to book
the program. reservations for campsites or pay for day
passes.
12.5.2.13. Establish a one-stop-shop for
citizens to access and share personal data Likewise, it is an arduous process for small
held by government agencies. businesses to find out what their regulatory
requirements are or what help they can get
To provide necessary services and allocate from governments, including in the COVID-
resources, many government agencies 19crisis. And while most agency websites try
collect personally identifiable information to list these things, figuring this out is
about individuals as part of their day-to-day extremely difficult for companies. Open APIs,
operations. This often results in individuals powered by better technology, could let
having to provide the same information to businesses and individuals enter into private
multiple government agencies, adding both sector for-profit or non-profit applications
time and cost to multiple government information about their company or
services. This information should be themselves and have the applications
consolidated in a single secure online location automatically identify the right information and
that can be accessed by individuals as well resources tailored specifically to them.
as authorized government agencies.
12.5.2.15. Establish a Federal Grant
This consolidation will improve the efficiency Program to Eliminate Data Poverty.
and accessibility of digital government
services. When collecting personally One of the primary reasons that individuals go
identifiable information, GSA should offer online is to get information. But sometimes
individuals a single website where they can individuals cannot find the information they
access all the information federal government want or the information they find is not very
agencies have collected about them, and accurate for themselves or their community.
share this information as necessary with For example, cities may only collect air quality
others, such as when applying for data or traffic data for wealthier areas of the
government benefits. Ideally, GSA would city creating pockets of data deserts in
form a partnership with states to allow the communities. Or certain hospitals serving
same functionality across all levels of higher-income individuals may have better
government. data sharing practices than those in lower-
income neighborhoods, limiting the
12.5.2.14. Build more government APIs to availability of data that researchers can use to
enable non-government organizations to link address health conditions disproportionately
citizens to services. affecting people with lower incomes. As an
increasing number of digital services are built
Government agencies provide access to to make sense of data, people living in data-
many important services and information rich environments stand to benefit
online, but citizens may prefer to access considerably, but others living in data poverty
these services and information through non- will miss out on these opportunities.[i] Similarly,
government websites and applications, decisions made from these datasets may
particularly given the fact that best-in-class overlook important opportunities to identify
private sector web applications are usually and serve the needs of all citizens.
significantly better in terms of user interface
and ease of use. Rather than only building The answer to this problem is not to limit the
government apps and websites, government use of data, but rather to ensure that everyone
agencies should build application stands to benefit from data-driven innovation.
programming interfaces (APIs) that allow To close the gap, the next administration
third-party developers to integrate should establish a $100 million grant program
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to eliminate data poverty. The goal of this should include policies and practices that
program would be to fund projects that take enable them to keep pace with innovation in
concrete steps to close the data divide, such Internet of Thing (IoT) devices, blockchain,
as by training citizens in under-represented robotic process automation, immersive reality,
communities how to submit feedback through cloud computing, and emerging technologies
city mobile apps or subsidizing wearable of the future. Government agencies should
medical devices to increase representation in consistently explore potential uses for these
health datasets. The program should focus new and emerging IT systems to improve
on updating legacy systems that limit data government services and facilitate effective
generating and reporting capacities; digital transformation.
equitable deployment of IoT—likely in
partnership with universities; building data 12.5.3.1. Launch a “Digital New Deal" to
trust and literacy; Research grants for under- modernize outdated government systems.
examined and analyzed local topics with
community demand; and support for local Many government agencies have critical
anchor institutions to conduct data operations running on outdated computer
inventorying and auditing, open data platform systems. During the spike in unemployment
building, internal training. applications due to COVID-19, many
government unemployment systems crashed
12.5.3. INVEST IN MORE MODERN because they were unable to handle the
surge in demand. Given the capabilities of
SYSTEMS, INCLUDING NEW cloud computing today, this was an eminently
preventable problem. In addition, making
APPLICATIONS. changes to these older systems can be
difficult due to a lack of programmers with the
To fully equip the government for a digital right skills. For example, at least 12 states use
future, agencies should not only update COBOL, an outdated programming language
current practices, but also invest in systems from the 1970s, in their unemployment
at the cutting edge of innovation. In the agency.152 All government agencies using
private sector, such investments have yielded outdated systems should move to modern,
higher productivity and efficiency. cloud-based systems that can accommodate
Government agencies can similarly benefit fluctuating demand and provide services
from investments in digital technologies that more efficiently. Similarly, many local
will help them become more productive, such governments have not digitized property
as by automating routine processes, parcel data and property tax records, an
benefiting from digital economies of scale, improvement that would not only help
and using data analytics to make better broadband mapping, but also potentially
decisions. significantly reduce title search costs when
people buy residential properties.
To accomplish this, the federal government
should introduce investment programs and As Congress pursues further national
initiatives that focus on modernizing existing recovery legislation, it should allocate
systems and strengthening them against substantial funds to federal, state, and local
disruptions such as those from the COVID-19 governments to modernize their IT systems.
pandemic. Many government websites and Too many government agencies are using
digital tools are outdated, vulnerable to cyber- systems that are outdated, not customer-
attacks, and lacking low-contact or friendly, and expensive to maintain. These
contactless alternatives necessary to protect older systems pose a drain to their budgets
employees and maintain a largely virtual and limit their ability to meet future
workforce. Government agencies should challenges. The Technology Modernization
invest in modernizing and securing existing Fund (TMF) established an innovative funding
systems, as well as developing low-contact vehicle for government agencies to obtain
and remote alternatives to existing practices. funding for IT projects. While the TMF has
received some funding, it has been
Further, as technologies continue to evolve, significantly lower than originally proposed.
systems that align with industry standards Congress should provide at least $3 billion in
today could become outdated in a matter of funding to significantly expand the TMF for
years. Agencies’ digital transformation federal agencies and dedicate the funding to
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modernizing IT systems that support public- not only reduce physical contact, but also
facing services. allow for more efficient, timely, and cost-
effective processes and services in both the
12.5.3.2. Develop and fund a globally public and private sectors.
competitive smart-cities program and
national Internet of Things (IoT) strategy. The federal government should fund a
dedicated blockchain pilot projects program
When governments implement new policies, to facilitate development and deployment of
such as stay-at-home orders, they struggle to these solutions, in collaboration with the
understand the impacts these decrees have private sector, which has been innovating
on their communities. To prevent this barrier across a range of blockchain use cases. By
in the future, Congress should allocate at least investing in and supporting blockchain
$2 billion for smart city funding. This program projects, government agencies can
could be jointly managed by HUD, NIST and accelerate the deployment of this technology,
NSF. Increasing adoption of IoT devices is thereby creating more opportunities for
necessary to generate key datasets that could automation and digitalization in the economy
help communities better respond to a and taking steps to increase financial
pandemic, such as smart thermostats to track inclusion.
public health trends and fitness trackers to
understand how people’s fitness habits, sleep 12.5.3.4. Develop and implement policies to
behavior, and overall health indicators enable long-term teleworking.
change during a pandemic. Moreover, as
discussed in the recommendation on While virtually all major corporations in the
eliminating data poverty (12.5.2.15), our United States seamlessly transitioned to
country faces a data divide—where certain enabling telework, including for their
communities do not have sufficient data customer service representatives, too few
collected about them, creating social and government agencies were fully prepared to
economic inequalities. Smart city data can be enable much of their workforce to telework
another tool to help ensure national datasets long-term. This meant many lower-level GS
are diverse and representative, helping to workers were without work for months
close that data divide.153 because their agencies could not adequately
provision them for remote work.
Local governments can also use connected
technologies to better manage public Preparing to adapt for long-term telework now
services and resources, thereby improving can mitigate the potential workforce impacts
their resilience in times of crisis, whether it be of such a transition in the future. Due to
a health epidemic, terrorism, or natural improvements in technology, many jobs,
disaster. All of this would also make especially public-facing customer service
broadband adoption, particularly mobile, jobs, can be performed remotely at home. For
more valuable to citizens. two-income working families, caregivers,
multigenerational households, and individuals
12.5.3.3. Fund a government blockchain with disabilities, teleworking presents
pilot projects program to expand the number enormous opportunities. Government
of blockchain initiatives. agencies should ensure they have the
technology systems and organizational
Many transactions, such as buying or selling procedures in place to enable long-term
property, require using a trusted intermediary telework. Doing so would also have benefits
such as a bank or a government agency, long after physical distancing requirements
which creates a constraint during physical are lifted, as telework has been shown to
distancing when these institutions are improve productivity, cut costs, and improve
unavailable. Blockchain allows multiple employee morale if done effectively.
parties to engage in secure, trusted
transactions with one another without an Congress should establish a one-time
intermediary and without physical contact. telework modernization fund for government
Government agencies could benefit from agencies to upgrade their IT to modern
greater adoption of blockchain technology to standards—and to qualify, their agencies
improve the accessibility and security of would be required to act within the next six
digital services. Blockchain-driven solutions
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months. They should also institute a fund for emergency response, enabling government
state governments to do the same. employees to communicate more effectively
with members of the public, and improving
12.5.3.5. Establish an “18F” for efficiency of high-tech manufacturing and
cybersecurity. machine repair. These technologies also
support health care training and patient care,
One factor that is critical to ensuring adequate education, job skilling, infrastructure
use of e-government services is that systems planning, and new opportunities for small
are secure. Unfortunately, many government businesses through retail and commerce. As
agencies lack the resources and expertise to technological improvements make AR/VR
fully address their systems’ cybersecurity more affordable and user-friendly,
risks: a 2018 GAO study identified addressing government agencies should explore
“cybersecurity workforce management opportunities to utilize these technologies.
challenges” as one of ten critical actions Several agencies including FEMA, Veterans
needed to address cybersecurity Affairs, and NASA have already started to
vulnerabilities in the U.S. government.154 explore AR/VR-based solutions for workforce
Without a fully equipped cybersecurity development and public engagement. Rather
workforce, government systems continue to than continue this ad-hoc approach to
lag behind their private sector counterparts in investment in these technologies, the federal
security measures, making government government should develop a government-
systems particularly vulnerable. As digital wide procurement strategy for AR/VR
services expand and more Americans rely on investment.
these systems, these vulnerabilities will be
exacerbated. Private sector expertise would 12.5.3.7. Replace annual reports with
improve agencies’ capacity to build and dashboards.
maintain more secure e-government systems.
Almost every government agency, no matter
The next administration should direct the its size, publishes a yearly report about its
General Services Administration (GSA) to activities. While these reports are a useful tool
establish an office that brings in top private- for providing insight and accountability on
sector talent to collaborate with other public-sector operations, they are no longer
agencies on cybersecurity issues to improve the best option for an increasingly digital
government security. This team should be government. Annual reports do not
modeled off some of the most successful accurately reflect the current activities and
aspects of the existing GSA office known as priorities of an agency at a given moment, nor
18F, which focuses on user-centered product do they offer readers the ability to easily seek
development, rapid prototyping, reviewing, out answers to specific questions or
and refining of its products, and coaching concerns. To function within a more digital
peers throughout government. The goal of government, annual reports should be
this initiative would be to incorporate private- dynamic, accessible, and easy to read.
sector knowledge and nongovernment culture
into high-impact, high-priority federal Agencies should begin replacing annual
government cybersecurity projects. reports with dynamic dashboards that provide
Members of this team could serve short-term real-time information on government
stints based on new projects, agency needs, programs. GSA can provide the technical
and available funding. building blocks for agencies to implement
dashboards, and OMB can provide guidance
12.5.3.6. Invest in augmented and virtual on best practices for data visualizations so
reality (AR/VR) solutions. that dashboards present information in the
most user-friendly way possible. This
Augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR), transition will be an important element of any
immersive technologies that enable users to agency’s digital transformation.
experience digitally rendered content in both
physical and virtual space, can reduce costs 12.5.3.8. Expand FedRamp Metrics
and increase productivity in the federal
workforce. AR/VR offers a range of potential To improve the overall efficiency of e-
uses in government, including providing government services, agencies will have to
realistic scenario-based training for rely on cloud computing services more now
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than in the past. FedRAMP is a federal
program that helps federal agencies procure
secure cloud computing services, but it
suffers from long timelines, high costs, and
review processes that are inconsistent across
federal agencies. These issues have created
barriers to businesses offering their services
to the federal government, thereby slowing
agencies’ access to cloud services.
To ensure FedRAMP is not acting as a
competition barrier for cloud providers,
especially smaller ones, OMB should track
how long it takes different sized vendors to get
through the authorization process and pilot a
tiered authorization approach that would allow
providers to operate on a provisional basis.
This will accelerate agencies’ adoption of
necessary cloud computing services and
ensure consistency in procurement across
the government.
CONCLUSION
A variety of Internet applications like e-
commerce, streaming video, online banking,
social media, and more have driven
broadband adoption, both fixed and mobile.
Building better e-government services can
continue to support adoption and provide
more value to those who are online. More
importantly, taking bold steps to bring
government agencies at the federal, state,
and local levels much closer to private sector
best practice will go a long way to improving
opportunity, boosting quality of life, and
ensuring a better civic life for all.
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Chapter 13.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
CIVIC
ENGAGEMENT
13.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Failings of digital equity and inclusion limit the ability of all Americans, and particularly
those with lower incomes and communities of color, from full engagement in the political
and civic lives of their communities, both offline and online. At the same time, while
broadband and applications such as social media have encouraged and facilitated new
forms of civic engagement, misinformation, online voter suppression tactics, and hate
speech have endangered those who live in low-income communities and people of
color. Further, social media platforms have created new harms related to micro-
targeting in advertising and other uses that results in discriminatory outcomes for
communities of color.
13.2. VISION 13.3. GOALS
We need improved sources of accurate and The key goals for the digital equity and
relevant information, and tools that enable inclusion in civic engagement are to:
Internet users to improve their own welfare,
and to engage productively with the • Reduce the amount and negative impact
democratic and civic institutions of their of harmful misinformation, online voter
communities and the nation. The Internet suppression, and hate speech on the
ecosystem must become a healthy, self- Internet;
sustaining environment, with effective
mechanisms for quickly identifying and
countering dangerous misinformation and • Increase the amount of content that
toxic behavior. addresses the concerns and needs of
low-income communities and
communities of color;
• Improve the tools available for low-income
persons and persons of color to engage in
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civic discussions, giving them a stronger in the Coal Mine: COVID-19 Misinformation
voice both offline and online in policy and Black Communities, documented:
decisions.
13.4. CURRENT SITUATION
[T]he Black community was awash in
Civic engagement is the lifeblood of any medical misinformation about the
democracy and the bedrock of its legitimacy.
Increasingly, our national conversation, our coronavirus pandemic, even as Black people
sources for news and information and our were dying from COVID-19 at a rate much
knowledge of each other ride on broadband
networks and applications. The transition to higher than other demographics. Dangerous
new information technologies and services
have opened new doors that enhance health misinformation hit the community
America’s media environment, but have left like a second virus, a confounding and
traditional sources of news and information,
including journalism, under severe stress. inflaming new factor injected into an already
Broadband holds the potential to strengthen
depleted immune system, making it that
our democracy by dramatically increasing much harder for the Black community to
public access to news and information, and to
provide new tools for Americans to engage survive the pandemic.
with their government and one another online.
For example, we have seen how social media
responded to some of the problems with the
2016 elections by improving the information The damage done by the misinformation is
provided in the 2020 election. We have also exacerbated by a long history of medical
seen efforts by social media to keep people abuses against the Black community. The
informed and limit misinformation about report noted that “Black people across the
COVID-19. However, there are still U.S. have for centuries and for good reason
misinformation campaigns about the been skeptical of government interventions
pandemic and vaccine that proliferate on and the medical community, relying on
social media platforms and target people of community knowledge for their very survival.
color. That necessary self-reliance, when it comes to
matters of health, can make the community a
The Internet has enabled the wide-spread vulnerable target for disinformation.” The
dissemination of misinformation that can report further noted that the risk was
weaken our country. Unfortunately, we have compounded “by failures of tech companies
seen several examples of that phenomenon and elected officials to speak to the Black
recently, with a particularly negative impact community in ways that are culturally
on communities of color. Without better accessible.” The report found that the
controls, both public and private, there is predominant narratives spreading in Black
genuine risk that the Internet could widen communities in the United States posed “an
racial, partisan, educational, gender and immediate threat to the health of Black people
other divides, rather than achieve its potential and is a symptom of an information
to close them. ecosystem poisoned by racial inequality.
Black lives are consistently put in danger, and
One example involves information about it is incumbent upon community actors,
public health. The COVID-19 pandemic media, government, and tech companies
provides a tragic, and important, example of alike to do their part to ensure that timely,
what can happen with information targeted to local, relevant, and redundant public health
minority communities. As the report, Canaries messages are served to all communities.”
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A second example involves Internet disinformation campaigns directed at minority
communities aimed at suppressing voting rights. As documented in The State of Black America
2020, in a chapter titled “The Vote and the Virus: Inoculating the Election From Disease and
Disinformation,” the 2016 election was marred by a number of “hoaxes (that) were aided and
abetted by Russian internet trolls whose systematic attempts to suppress the Black vote were
motivated by geopolitical rather than political objectives.” While the authors viewed the impact
of those efforts as likely to have been minimal, they suggest the impact of similar efforts could
be much larger in 2020. As the authors point out, “one of the time-tested truisms of
disinformation is that it thrives in times of uncertainty when there is both a large demand for
information and a short supply of available facts. Thus, any change to standard voting
procedures, however reasonable, necessary, or lifesaving, will create a potentially nightmarish
scenario where the increased demand for up-to-date information is met with a manipulated
supply meant to misinform parts of the electorate.”
A third example relates to the decennial communities where there was not an
census disinformation. As Spencer Overton, undercount.
President of the Joint Center on Political and
Economic Studies recently wrote to Congress, The danger of misinformation campaigns has
related to his testimony at a hearing on “A become more acute, due to the crisis
Country in Crisis: How Disinformation Online affecting traditional news outlets, particularly
is Dividing the Nation,” census disinformation those designed to serve communities of color.
threatens to result in an undercount of
underserved communities, which would fall As the authors of the report “African American
short of the constitutional mandate that Media Today: Building the Future from the
apportionment of Representatives be based Past,” summarized their findings:
on “persons” counted by a census conducted
in such a manner that Congress directs by
law. In 2016, the Russian Internet Research
Agency coordinated a campaign to Today, the Black press struggles to
impersonate Black Americans and encourage
Black Americans to “boycott the election” remain in operation. While the virtual
(Black Americans made up 12.7 percent of
the U.S. population but accounted for 38 disappearance of traditional
percent of the U.S.-focused ads purchased advertising has challenged the news
by the Russian Internet Research Agency).
These kinds of targeted ads discourage Black industry as a whole, it has been
communities from participating in the political
process. A similar disinformation campaign particularly damaging to the Black
targeted at marginalized groups attempting to newspaper industry. Shrinking staffs
sow distrust of the census or boycott the
census could result in a serious undercount of have left many operations without
marginalized communities, which could result
in diminishing the votes and resources of tech savvy or the manpower to quickly
these populations and their fellow residents, pivot to new revenue building
and unfairly inflating the political influence
and government benefits enjoyed by those operations. And while some
mainstream news institutions establish should not be in the position to compel or
censor speech. But just as the government
paywalls for their digital media can prohibit certain kinds of speech that
create a public health hazard or sponsor
platforms, many in the Black speech designed to provide information to
American community understand that enhance public health and safety, so here, we
should search for ways that, consistent with
readers are unlikely to accept news First Amendment precedents, address the
through the paywall model. challenges of improving signal to noise ratio.
This also applies to social media companies
that allow users to promote ‘noise’ online.
Companies have the power to prohibit speech
That report did hold up hope. In looking at the that are unhealthy and unsafe for Black and
most prominent Black American oriented web Brown communities. Online content has real-
sites, it noted that “Each of these sites seems world consequences for people of color, and,
positioned for future growth” and that “Many unlike Government, social media platforms
social trends also seem to be fueling the have the authority to remove content that is
bright futures of Black American-oriented harmful. Tech companies must publish and
news and culture sites.” To serve Black update rules or community guidelines to
American audiences, these digital news create strong mechanisms to eliminate the
platforms will need funding to be sustainable. noise.
That potential, however, may not be achieved,
unless we address the availability, adoption,
and affordability gaps discussed in Chapters 13.6 POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Three, Four, and Five.
In light of the above, we offer the following
13.5 KEY CHALLENGES TO recommendations related to elevating
relevant and reliable information and
OVERCOME providing tools for individuals and countering
misinformation.
Information technology legal scholar Ellen
Goodman suggests that we find mechanisms 13.6.1. CIVIC ENGAGEMENT RELATED
that increase the “signal” and decrease the RECOMMENDATIONS IN OTHER
“noise” in information delivered through the CHAPTERS.
Internet. “Signal,” in this context, is
information that is truthful and supportive of There are several civic engagement related
democratic discourse. “Noise” misinforms recommendations in other chapters that we
and undermines discursive potential. “When cross-reference here. These include:
signal overpowers noise, Goodman write,
“there is high fidelity in the information • Provide Digital Readiness Training. To
environment.” She further explains “Digital enable greater use of broadband
platforms can overwhelm signal with noise. functionality, including for purposes of
Scale and speed, user propagation, civic engagement, state and local
automated promotion, inauthentic and hidden governments should ramp up digital
amplification, and the mixture of sponsored readiness efforts, as described in Chapter
and organic speech all make digital discourse Four.
different…It is therefore not shocking that
platform architecture not only tolerates but • Optimize Websites to Facilitate
even favors low-fidelity speech.” Engagement. To enable greater civic
engagement, state and local governments
The challenge then, is improving the should improve their websites to facilitate
mechanisms by which key stakeholders, utilization and feedback on policy issues,
including public institutions and individuals such as budgeting, as described in
have the resources to eliminate or at least Chapter Twelve.
reduce the noise, while elevating the signal.
Of course, there are First Amendment issues
here that must be respected. Government
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13.6.2. HOLD HEARINGS TO HELP 13.6.6. EMPOWER FTC TO ADDRESS NEW
INFORM PUBLIC. DECEPTIVE PRACTICES.
Congress should hold a series of civil rights- Congress should specifically empower the
focused hearings with high-level executives FTC to address deceptive practices related to
from the companies that have been the major public health and safety, voting, and other
sources of disinformation to discuss their actions related to civic participation such as
content moderation practices and how those the census.
practices can be augmented to protect public
health, civic engagement, and civil rights. 13.6.7. EMPANEL A COMMISSION TO
STUDY PUBLIC INFORMATION ON COVID-
13.6.3. PASS LEGISLATION TO PREVENT 19.
VOTER SUPPRESSION ON SOCIAL MEDIA.
The President or Congress should empanel a
As a follow-on to those hearings and as part Commission to study what information about
of a broader effort to restore and enhance the pandemic was made publicly available,
voting rights, Congress should enact laws that how this information affected societal
prevent deceptive voter suppression tactics response, and what should be done to limit
on social media. the impact of false and dangerously
misleading information moving forward, while
13.6.4. CLARIFY THAT SECTION 230 DOES ensuring robust opportunity for debate and
NOT IMMUNIZE RACIALLY expression. There should be particular
DISCRIMINATORY AD TARGETING BY attention to what information was targeted at
PLATFORMS. low-income communities and communities of
color. The purpose of the Commission should
Social media companies should be held not be to impose civil or criminal liability for
accountable if they target (and/or deliver) misinformation spread during the COVID-19
employment or housing ads away from pandemic. Rather, the Commission should
communities of color and other protected seek to understand and explain how different
groups or target (and/or deliver) voter media platforms—and the ideas shared on
suppression ads toward Black users and them—shaped societal response to the
other protected groups. Congress should pandemic and to provide advice to all
consider making this an explicit carve-out to stakeholders for how to better provide
Section 230—that Section 230 does not information in a public health emergency.
provide a defense to federal and state civil
rights claims of underlying discrimination 13.6.8. EMPANEL A COMMISSION TO
through online ad targeting and delivery. STUDY THE IMPACT OF THE DIGITAL
Section 230 carve-outs already exist for DIVIDE ON THE 2020 CENSUS.
violations in various areas of the law. A clear
congressional carve out would prevent The accuracy of the 2020 Census, which
companies from asserting that the Civil Rights relied heavily on online answers, has been
Act of 1964, the Fair Housing Act, and other called into question because of how failings of
landmark civil rights laws are inapplicable digital equity and inclusion may have skewed
simply because a platform discriminates the results, a situation likely made worse by
online rather than at a brick-and-mortar COVID-19. An expert panel should be
storefront. commissioned to study the impact on the
results and if necessary, the Census results
13.6.5. RESTORE FUNDING OF OTA. should be adjusted to reflect a more accurate
count.
Congress should restore funding for the
Office of Technology Assessment and add to 13.6.9. ESTABLISH BEST SOCIAL MEDIA
its mandate that it help Congress understand PRACTICES.
and address how best to combat
disinformation and other practices that Social media platforms should provide banner
discriminate against communities of color and notices with accurate information, redirect to
create barriers to civic engagement. deradicalizing sites, and refuse ads that
promote voter or public health misinformation
or that link to websites promoting such
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misinformation. In addition, social media Lifeline subsidies or other broadband related
should be transparent about how they are subsidies are not provided devices or
acting to ensure that algorithms used are not services that violate privacy rights consistent
biased and serve all communities. with the FTC’s privacy framework policy by
using preloaded tracking software to collect
13.6.10. ESTABLISH RULES RELATED TO personal information from the user without
POLITICAL MICROTARGETING. disclosing this practice to the user.
Political microtargeting involves using large 13.6.13. INCREASE INVESTMENT IN
data sets to tailor and deliver messages to RELIABLE, RELEVANT AND TRUSTED
small subgroups of the electorate. It has some INFORMATION FOR UNDERSERVED
benefits, for example, in terms of get-out-the- COMMUNITIES.
vote and community mobilization ads. But it
has also been used to spread targeted To enable greater civic engagement, the
misinformation. As Spencer Overton of the federal government should make grants
Joint Center for Political and Economic through the Corporation for Public
Studies has noted, microtargeting “allows Broadcasting to local noncommercial stations
those intending to deploy misinformation for journalism by and for underserved
about elections the opportunity to target ads communities.
at those most likely to believe the
misinformation, while steering it away from
those more likely to challenge and correct the
misinformation, thereby hardening
polarization.” Senator Ron Wyden has asked
platforms for a moratorium on political
microtargeting, which would be useful to
preventing disinformation, but such an action
should be done in a way that ensures that the
actions do not prevent less-wealthy
candidates that lack resources for television
ads from targeting their supporters online and
mobilizing them and marginalized
communities to the polls.
13.6.11. ENABLE REAL-TIME AD
TRANSPARENCY AND ARCHIVES.
Congress should enable real-time ad
transparency and access to archives, such as
proposed in the bipartisan Honest Ads Act, by
requiring digital platforms that reach a critical
size with to display information about the
audience targeted, the number of views
generated, the dates and times of publication,
the ad rates charged, and contact information
for the purchaser. The information should be
made available in a public, online file that
should be user-friendly, easily searchable,
and sortable through an application
programming interface (API).
13.6.12. PROTECT PRIVACY ON
SUBSIDIZED DEVICES AND SERVICES.
Privacy protection is also a fundamental
bedrock of civic engagement so, as
described in Chapter Four, the FCC should
take actions to assure that recipients of
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Chapter 14.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
INSTITUTIONALIZING
DIGITAL EQUITY AND
INCLUSION IN THE
POLICY PROCESS
14.1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Achieving digital equity and inclusion requires a sustained, systemic, and appropriately
resourced effort. It also depends on inter-agency coordination, and collaboration with
federal, state, and local governments. Currently, policymakers do not have the tools to
monitor and evaluate the success of efforts to close the digital equity gap. Responsibility
is diffused across multiple agencies and stakeholder groups. Data collection practices
are inadequate to capture the obstacles individuals face in broadband availability,
adoption, and affordability. A lack of effective outreach results in provider-centric
coverage maps that do not reflect the challenges faced by diverse communities.
To achieve full utilization, agencies will need to centralize efforts, and coordinate with
federal, state, and local partners to collect data and implement programs. Without a
coordinated approach, agencies will continue to solve disparate pieces of the problem,
leaving holes in otherwise-potent efforts to close the gaps.
14.2. VISION that as the economy, society, and technology
change, policymakers can find and address
evolving and emerging sources of inequity.
Governments must develop tools they Agencies expanding broadband access at
currently lack to evaluate and improve, in a the federal level will need to collaborate
centralized and systematic manner, efforts to effectively and share data while developing
achieve digital equity and inclusion, ensuring partnerships with state and local authorities
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who are working on on-the-ground efforts to been channeled through a variety of
expand broadband access in their executive departments and agencies,
communities. coordinated through the American
Broadband Initiative, an inter-departmental
Robust data collection, including individual effort launched in 2019. According to the
and household data, should be available for American Broadband Initiative’s 2019
decision-making, and made open to the Milestones Report, over twenty federal
public so that governments can be held agencies have been tasked with some level of
accountable. Additionally, considerations of responsibility for achieving the overall goal.
availability, adoption, and affordability should Agency staff also lack the data, personnel,
be included in all new legislation on the digital and institutional structure needed to achieve
economy. their goals. There are inadequate
mechanisms for bringing agencies together to
evaluate progress and align on tactics and
14.3. GOALS strategies.
• By the middle of 2022, the federal While access to information on digital equity
government should have the data it needs and inclusion, such as the FCC’s public
to evaluate progress towards digital interactive Broadband Map, has become
equity and inclusion. more readily available over time, the value of
this information cannot be fully realized
• By the end of 2021, personnel in key without a clear central vision. There are also
positions in federal, state, and local significant limits to the value of the information
governments should be hired to ensure that is being collected. The FCC’s dataset, for
that digital equity and inclusion remains example, is updated based on Form 477 data,
an on-going, high-priority goal. submitted twice a year by service providers.
As discussed in Chapter 3, however, there are
structural and procedural flaws to the current
• By the end of 2021, mechanisms should data collection process. These flaws are
be in place to disseminate information expected to be addressed through
through an Office of Digital Equity and a implementation of the 2020 Broadband DATA
Digital Equity and Inclusion Administration Act, which requires the FCC to collect data
Task Force. These entities should have and prepare maps that report broadband
the tools they need to review data on past availability at a much more granular level.
performance, and make and
communicate necessary adjustments to Additionally, each agency participating in the
strategies and policies adopted to American Broadband Initiative relies on their
achieve digital equity and inclusion. own personnel to carry out specific agency
workstreams. Without dedicated staff to carry
14.4. THE CURRENT SITUATION out the broader vision of institutionalizing
digital equity and inclusion, it remains difficult
The 2010 National Broadband Plan was clear to adapt to changing conditions. The USDA
in noting that, “This plan is in beta and always and FCC carry out the bulk of the federal
will be.” The authors emphasized that a government’s grant, loan, and subsidy
constantly evolving economy, society, and programs for broadband, for example, but
technology required continuous review and there is little coordination between these
update of the plans, goals, strategies, and organizations, and no centralized staff
measurement. The same is true for the digital focused on the issue of equity in broadband
equity and inclusion agenda. But to evolve, access, adoption, and utilization.
policymakers seeking to achieve digital equity
and inclusion will need to have data, Finally, the agencies included in the American
personnel, and information sharing strategies Broadband Initiative lack a common review
essential to understanding changing and oversight process to bridge their
conditions, and to develop and communicate separate information and personnel. There is
needed course corrections. no incentive for public-private partnerships
between industries and government agencies
Today, that is not the case. Federal programs to collaborate. Many of the American
to expand digital equity and inclusion have Broadband Initiative’s problems are
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structural; the program lacks authority, As with any type of data, the federal
incentives, and adequate budgeting. There government needs to examine critically any
are inherent conflicts which affect chain of biases that could affect its collection,
command and reporting. Without better data, analysis, and interpretation. Fundamentally,
a deep well of personnel, and a coherent when collecting survey data and coverage
review and oversight structure, efficient and statistics, sampling bias is a concern–if
sustainable solutions are impossible to surveys are conducted exclusively online,
achieve. households who already have broadband
access will be more easily able to fill out the
survey. Data collection efforts need to have
14.5. KEY CHALLENGES TO alternative ways for people to fill out surveys,
OVERCOME such as a booth set up at a library or local
park that provides devices and broadband
access for the survey. Self-selection bias or
14.5.1. DATA COLLECTION. ambiguously worded questions can also lead
to confusion for respondents and generate
A fundamental challenge to institutionalizing a poor quality results.
digital equity and inclusion agenda is how the
federal government defines and prioritizes the Data collections efforts should also be
data that need to be collected. If surveys and designed to consider how different methods
maps leave out crucial segments of the can underrepresent the challenges facing
population or limit the respondents who can specific demographic groups. For example,
provide their input, the data will not be useful if data collection methods primarily involve
for improving overall broadband utilization. surveys conducted by public schools, these
methods may overrepresent households with
Much of the focus so far has appropriately school-age children, and underrepresent
been on coverage maps. Unfortunately, as older individuals who may face additional
Congress has recognized on a bi-partisan challenges to participating in surveys. A
basis, the maps are updated infrequently, survey that is collected only in English may
limiting their accuracy and consistency. exclude individuals who are not fluent in
Moreover, coverage maps are often English. Surveys should be easily completed,
inaccurate due to differences in the criteria for ideally within 5-15 minutes per household, so
determining “unserved” areas, with rural that individuals are not burdened by the
areas served poorly by definitions that may request for data collection. A burden of
work well in urban areas. For instance, the several hours of data collection, for example,
assumption that all households in a given will privilege individuals who have the time
Census Block Group (CBG) are covered if any and resources to dedicate to filling out these
one household in that CBG is covered is less surveys.
applicable to rural areas, where a few
households may be separated by hundreds of When collecting survey data, collection efforts
miles.155 These maps do not have a defined should promote community engagement at
level of geospatial granularity, such as the local level so that anchor institutions and
household level, so it is difficult to find groups are mobilized to participate in the data
households affected by poor coverage, and collection process. Local legislators, public
for households to advocate for better schools, community organizations, houses of
coverage from their local politicians. Most worship, and other focal points in the
important, coverage maps often have missing community can be excellent advocates for
or incomplete data.156 This can impact the data collection efforts.
frequency of updating coverage maps, since
dealing with missing data can take valuable Data collection is fundamentally linked with
time and resources. Again, these flaws are public policy and accountability. Non-
expected to be addressed through confidential survey data should be open to the
implementation of the 2020 Broadband DATA public in accessible formats, so that
Act. individuals and organizations are able to hold
local, state, and federal offices accountable
14.5.2. EQUITY IN DATA COLLECTION. for enforcing broadband policy.
Transparency also requires an open forum for
complaints, such as a helpline or federal point
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of contact that can process reports of challenges, etc.) of each population it serves,
broadband issues or incorrect coverage and more specifically, should track how
statistics and coverage maps. constituents interact with the agency. Areas
of data collection could include:
14.5.3. PERSONNEL.
• percentage of case files that were created
Institutionalizing digital equity and inclusion via in-person, telephone, or online
requires hiring people with strong technical mechanisms;
expertise, structuring teams so that they are
incentivized to make progress toward • percentage of respondents who use
achieving the goals and ensuring online platforms from home, via mobile
coordination across teams. Right now, devices, or at anchor institutions such as
ownership of digital equity is thinly spread libraries, community centers, or schools;
across several individuals in a variety of
agencies, preventing coordinated efforts and
progress. Many people have diffuse • the ratio of cost of broadband relative to
responsibilities, with digital equity as only one the average income in the community.
goal among many. Even if the individuals
appointed to work on digital equity and The data should be made public in a format
inclusion have the right expertise and skill set, that can be collated and compared across
split responsibilities and part-time agencies and programs. The FCC could
assignments distract individuals from making leverage government websites like Data.gov
necessary contributions. and Strategydata.gov, which have
demonstrated a willingness to improve data
user interfaces. These websites are ideally
14.6. RECOMMENDATIONS. positioned to inform the public on broadband
access and adoption throughout the country.
The recommendations for institutionalization For information deficits that require additional
involve three basic strategies: Data personnel to gather the data, a crowdsourced
Collection, Dissemination of Information, and option sponsored on social media or popular
Personnel. Each strategy is discussed below. public forums can reduce the time required
and stimulate participation.
14.6.1. DATA COLLECTION.
14.6.1.2. The FCC should explore
The federal government should collect the alternatives to coverage maps to
necessary information for agencies to contextualize geographic data with
monitor, evaluate, and course-correct policies additional indicators focused on broadband
related to digital equity and inclusion. That availability, affordability, and adoption.
includes but is not limited to affordability,
devices, digital literacy, digital readiness, Coverage maps, while useful for gauging
technical support, and applications and access, are limited in their ability to pinpoint
content. This leads us to make the following concerns related to quality of availability,
recommendations: affordability, and adoption, which are the
three factors driving utilization and the
14.6.1.1. Federal agencies should expand achievement of digital equity and inclusion.
broadband data collection. Table 1 below lists possible questions and
indicators in each of the key goals that would
Federal agencies, including the proposed elicit more granular and actionable data,
Office of Digital Equity (see Chapter 4), measuring whether individuals are truly
should expand the collection of data on seeing a positive impact of broadband in their
broadband use by target populations, lives. Collection of this information should
particularly underserved communities. This primarily be through individual or household
data would be in addition to the indicators surveys as the goal is to assess the practical
specified below in Table 1, as the goal is to impact of broadband in people’s day-to-day
have specific data related to how constituents lives, though care should be taken to avoid
interact with federal agencies. Each federal imposing burdensome disclosure obligations
agency should collect the data necessary (the on consumers and service providers as well
broadband availability, adoption, affordability
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as avoiding disclosure of competitively layered digital maps, the FCC should also
sensitive or proprietary information. maintain a public database that would include
county-by-county census data which we
Current coverage maps are limited in that they propose should be supplemented by the
only report whether an area does or does not indicators in Table 1. This would allow
have broadband availability. Ideally, the data researchers and policymakers to cross-
collection suggested in Table 1 would be reference coverage with the contextual data
layered over coverage maps. For example, provided in Table 1.
one layer could include the original coverage
map, but another layer could include a
gradient of upload and download speeds to
determine where broadband quality needs
improvement. In addition to presenting
GOAL KEY QUESTION INDICATOR(S)
Availability: Does the area have ● Number of broadband providers in the area
Do households broadband service?
have access to
broadband? Do the services meet ● Upload speed
minimum federal ● Download speed
requirements?
● Latency
Is the broadband ● Number of interruptions to service per day
service of good quality? ● Number of customer complaints
Affordability: Is broadband ● Median net income of household
Are households affordable for the ● Size of household
using broadband? households in an area?
● Household members by gender, race, national
origin, and immigration status
● Median price of broadband plan
How is broadband ● Local or federal programs in the community that
being made more provide discounted or free broadband plans
affordable? ● Programs operated by providers to provide
discounted/subsidized service
● Programs operated by NGOs to provide
discounted/subsidized service
Adoption: What is broadband ● How often do members of households use
How are households used for? broadband for education, health care, and jobs?
using broadband? ● Are you able to access telework/remote
learning/social media/streaming with your
household’s broadband plan?
● How many interruptions to any of the above
services – especially telework and remote
learning – do you generally experience in a day?
Do broadband plans ● Number of available broadband plans that vary
meet the needs of in speed and cost
different customers? ● Key locations where broadband is free
● Are you aware of any low-cost/no-cost
broadband services in your area?
● If you are aware, do you subscribe to one of
these services?
● If you are aware and do not subscribe, what is
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the primary reason for not subscribing?
Are broadband ● Number of languages spoken in the area
services available in ● Number of languages of broadband services
the languages spoken
in the area?
Does broadband usage ● Unemployment rate in the area
correlate with more job ● Number of people actively looking for jobs online
opportunities?
Table 1. Supplemental Data Collection for Coverage Maps
To collect these data, which appropriately rely questions similar to those in Table 1.
significantly on individual/household Individuals without mobile devices can be
participation, the federal government would reached by federal workers from a partnering
need to embrace novel approaches to data agency. If these surveys are conducted once
collection, leveraging existing federal data a quarter, this could help generate relevant,
collection infrastructure. The Census Bureau, timely, and accurate coverage statistics that
for example, conducts the American cover not only broadband access, but also
Community Survey on an annual basis to adoption and utilization.
gauge certain community indicators. This
survey currently collects data on how many 14.6.1.4. The federal government should
households have a computer, how many identify, study, and publish research on the
households have a broadband Internet benefits of universal availability and
subscription, and the population over age 65 adoption.
that does not have a computer in the
household. Expanding that data collection The federal government should identify,
could include incorporating additional study, and publish potential benefits to
coverage statistics, as described in Table 1, national goals and agency goals if all people
to better understand how broadband is being in the U.S. fully utilized broadband with
adopted and utilized, beyond how many increasing performance and efficiency. This
households have broadband availability. Plan identifies many benefits in areas such as
education, health care and workforce
Expanding data collection efforts, though development, and has identified new funding
necessary, could prove costly, as it is labor sources and mechanisms to obtain those
intensive. The federal government should rely benefits. But as the economy, society and
on existing outreach infrastructure to avoid technology evolve, the federal government
duplicative efforts while collecting data. For should continually identify and reevaluate the
example, the federal government could benefits, so that federal agencies can focus
provide additional funding for USPS attention and resources on issues that would
employees to conduct surveys (either online yield the greatest benefit. Identifying targeted
or paper) when delivering mail to various benefits of universal availability, adoption,
households, and the seasonal workforce that and affordability will also help the federal
supports the U.S. Census every decade could government effectively prioritize work streams
also be charged with collecting more detailed within efforts to achieve digital equity and
data on broadband experience in years when inclusion, and to determine funding
the Census is not running. mechanisms that are closely aligned to
expected benefits.
14.6.1.3. The federal government should
conduct mobile surveys to isolate problems 14.6.2. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
with broadband access. SHOULD ESTABLISH AN OFFICE OF
DIGITAL EQUITY.
One way to conduct online research would be
to use underlying data from coverage maps to Once the government has collected the data,
develop a machine learning model that it should develop strategies for making it
isolates areas of low coverage. Individuals in public. The result will be a more informed
low coverage areas could then be asked to debate about how to improve digital equity
complete surveys on mobile devices that ask and inclusion. It will also lead to greater
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accountability for agencies charged with content creators who may be able to inform
improving digital equity and inclusion. This campaigns to promote the relevance of
leads us to make the following broadband for underrepresented
recommendations: communities. Grassroots digital inclusion
organizations would also be able to share the
14.6.2.1. The Office of Digital Equity should challenges they are facing and connect with
create an online hub that catalogues digital local and federal government representatives
inclusion resources. as well as businesses who may be able to
assist in filling the gaps.
As described in Chapter 4, we recommend
that the federal government create an Office 14.6.2.3. The federal government should set
of Digital Equity. That office, working with the minimum standards for federal benefits
FCC and its Consumer Advisory Committee programs’ use of websites.
(CAC), and in partnership with other agencies
working to promote broadband adoption, As discussed in Chapter 12, the federal
such as NTIA, HUD, and the Department of government should pursue steps to improve
Education, should create an online hub that government performance that would also help
catalogues digital inclusion resources, to promote digital equity and inclusion. To
including those provided by states and local institutionalize digital equity and inclusion in
governments, non-governmental ongoing policy considerations, the
organizations, and private enterprises. The government should study, identify best
hub should list resources according to the practices, and adopt policies to set minimum
component of digital inclusion that they standards for federal benefits programs’ use
address, including but not limited to of websites and online web portals.
affordability, devices, digital literacy, Increased availability of broadband means
technical support, and applications and that more individuals can apply for federal
content. With a growing number of benefits online, as well as monitor their
organizations working on digital inclusion applications, receive communications, or
initiatives, this would help groups avoid update eligibility information. This kind of
duplicating efforts, and to inform those groups access can benefit both applicants and
of multiple available resources. For example, agencies. Conversely, poorly created online
a community organization that is operating a portals or web sites can make the application
successful digital literacy program in a public process more difficult, or jeopardize security.
housing community may be able to secure
funding for teachers, and to give devices to Best practices, evaluation, and timelines for
students, but be unable to afford antivirus compliance should be replicated government
security or operating software. In that wide. Developing and promoting a
instance, the organization could access the foundational template for how online portals
online portal and learn about programs like and websites are created can help further
Microsoft’s Citizenship Licenses, or the institutionalize digital equity and inclusion.
software lending libraries offered by several The inter-agency process should share
public libraries. information across institutional silos,
identifying the best agency resources for
14.6.2.2. The Office of Digital Equity should creating websites and portals, and a common
convene annual National Digital Inclusion set of evaluation benchmarks for these tools.
Summits. These evaluation benchmarks should include
ease of use, cybersecurity precautions, digital
The Office of Digital Equity should convene a accessibility, and language translation
series of in-person and online National Digital capacity. The federal government should
Inclusion Summits to bring together publish clear data use policies, so citizens
stakeholders with digital inclusion understand how their data is being used.
organizations, Tribal leaders, and community
anchor institutions including community 14.6.3. PERSONNEL.
media organizations, libraries, faith-based
organizations, schools, civil rights Government must have personnel with the
organizations, foundations, and disability authority and accountability for promoting
rights advocates. These gatherings should digital equity and inclusion. This leads us to
include press and media outlets, as well as make the following recommendations:
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14.6.3.1. Create a Digital Equity and implementation of digital equity and inclusion
Inclusion Administration Task Force within programs. One would be responsible for
the Office of Digital Equity. overseeing the data collection process,
including the collection of relevant
Digital equity and inclusion require inter- broadband-related data and the assessment
agency collaboration, and the expertise of a of evolving benefits of availability,
broad set of stakeholders. To guide the affordability, and adoption. A second staff
progress of digital equity and inclusion, the member would be responsible for overseeing
President should sign an Executive Order to the dissemination of information, including the
create a Digital Equity and Inclusion creation of an online resource hub for digital
Administration Task Force housed within the access, the organization of national digital
Office of Digital Equity. The task force will inclusion summits, and the creation of a
differ from the American Broadband Initiative, minimum standard for federal benefits
serving in a consulting capacity instead of an programs’ use of websites.
administrative role. The Office of Digital
Equity should consult the Task Force on its Both staff members should regularly report to
collaborations with state and local digital the head of the Digital Equity and Inclusion
equity offices, process for data collection, and Administration Task Force, described in
progress toward national digital equity goals. 14.6.3.1. The staff members should submit a
The Task Force should recognize where its publicly available report detailing progress
respective agencies can support the Office of semi-annually.
Digital Equity’s efforts, especially in terms of
data sharing and identifying permanent 14.6.4. COVID-19.
federal personnel needs to maximize long-
term progress. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has laid
bare stark disparities in broadband
Task force membership should include availability, affordability, and adoption, and in
agency leaders from the FCC, NTIA, the ownership of devices needed to connect
Department of Education, HUD, HHS, and to remote schooling, telehealth, job search
Department of Labor, and experts in and training, and other critical services that
technology infrastructure, city planning, have shifted operations largely or entirely
community development, workforce online. Any plan that the federal government
development, and education technology. For undertakes regarding COVID-19 needs to
accountability purposes, the task force should integrate with longer-term digital equity and
publish a semi-annual report of its findings inclusion efforts.
and progress, with a goal to dissolve once
processes are put in place to streamline data 14.6.4.1. The federal government should
collection and cooperation across agencies. partner with state and local governments to
Once these benchmarks are met, the task collect relevant data, including efforts to
force should dissolve in two years. expand access, adoption, and utilization
carried out at the local level.
Experts on the task force can also provide
input on potential bias in the data collection State and local agencies, including public
process (see 14.5.3 Equity in Data Collection) schools, have taken significant action to
and develop mechanisms to address expand broadband and device access to
concerns. A multi-stakeholder approach, as help individuals engage with services and
opposed to government-only representatives, programs that have been moved online,
increases opportunity for diverse discussion especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.
surrounding best practices for equity in data As a result, local authorities may be best
collection. equipped to provide up-to-date information
on new initiatives to improve broadband
14.6.3.2. Designate staff responsible for utilization in partnership with schools,
implementing agency digital equity and transportation services, parks, and other
inclusion plans and require them to provide community centers. Federal agencies should
updates on progress on a regular basis. work with state and local authorities to
determine best practices, and to evaluate the
At least two staff positions should be created impact of these programs to identify
within the Office of Digital Equity to monitor the community-based programs that would
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benefit from increased federal funding or coverage statistics shown in Table 1, so that
guidance for implementation. data collection efforts can include whether
individuals have broadband service
14.6.4.2. The federal government should necessary to effectively utilize these services.
advocate for funding for short-term programs The Office of Digital Equity should conduct
that are temporarily bridging the broadband further analysis to understand any racial
access gap. disparities that may result in communities of
color having limited access to remote
Given the rapid shift to virtual delivery of schooling, workforce, telehealth, and other
critical services, including education, critical services that are now being delivered
workforce, and health care, state, and local online.
governments, along with private sector
providers, have raced to fill gaps in
broadband utilization, providing everything
from mobile hotspots for individuals to use at
home to equipping school buses with Wi-Fi to
support students in neighborhoods with
limited broadband access. In many cases,
these are short-term solutions that have
emerged that only temporarily bridge
availability and affordability gaps. But
significant expenditure on mobile hotspots
and other equipment creates a strain on
school districts and local governments, which
are already facing the economic effects of the
pandemic. The federal government should
fund short-term programs to expand
broadband access, and the Office of Digital
Equity could promote these efforts to state or
local digital equity offices as they distribute
broadband access grants to school districts,
libraries, park authorities, and any other state
or local agency that is operating a short-term
program to support individuals in the
community who do not have broadband
access.
14.6.4.3. The Office of Digital Equity should
be charged with collecting data related to
the minimum standards for critical service
delivery during COVID-19 and racial
disparities related to how these services are
currently being provided.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, critical
services, including public education,
workforce, and health care, have experienced
a significant transition to virtual delivery. The
federal government should collect data about
these critical services to determine minimum
and optimal standards for online delivery.
These benchmarks could include speed,
latency, service design, website and
application design, and data utilization
characteristics. Once the Office of Digital
Equity has determined the minimum and
optimal standards in these key scenarios, the
benchmarks should be incorporated into the
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 181
Conclusion
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
THE FIERCE
URGENCY OF
CONNECTING
NOW
As we finished the In politics, as elsewhere, timing is everything. The awful
writing of this Plan, the combination of 2020’s pandemic and the multiple incidents
demonstrating continuing racial discrimination, most notably
Biden Administration with George Floyd’s murder, has reignited stalled efforts to
and Congress had just address many forms of inequity. Both crises revealed in the
begun developing a starkest terms what it means, among other hardships, to be
without broadband at home, whether the reason is because
comprehensive one cannot get it, cannot afford it, or cannot make effective
infrastructure plan for use of it. What was once considered a luxury instantly
the U.S., one that will became essential to prepare for and secure employment, to
get a basic education, and to receive health care of nearly
consider substantial any kind.
steps toward ending the
longstanding failings of With the arrival of multiple COVID-19 vaccines, there is strong
digital equity and hope of a return to normalcy sometime in 2021. But we will
never return to a time when debates about the importance of
inclusion described in Internet availability, adoption, and affordability seriously
this Plan. It is our firm entertain the possibility that the millions without connections
hope that our detailed don’t need or want them. That bridge has been crossed.
recommendations will Now it’s time to do something bold to reap the benefits of full
prove helpful in utilization of a wide range of digital tools and services to
designing and improve the economic, social, and political life of the U.S.; not
implementing those just for those without service but for everyone.
efforts. It’s time because we now have clear and convincing evidence
of both the need and the value of universal adoption. It’s time
because the failures of digital equity and inclusion are vivid in
the minds of Americans and their elected representatives. It’s
time because this moment of clarity will not last long, despite
how clear the calculus of costs and benefits of equity and
inclusion has been conclusively proven.
In the next few months Congress will consider major
legislative initiatives to address long festering areas of public
underinvestment. Broadband must be one of those areas
that receives new funding.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 183
In the next few years, the Administration will consider many steps
for how to create a more equitable and inclusive economy and
society. Digital equity and inclusion must be on that agenda.
Not every need will be funded. Not every positive action will be
taken. But we must aggressively and deliberately seek to use the
tools of the information age to close the many gaps discussed in
this Plan. Our country has gone through regular economic and
societal transformations in its short but illustrious history. So far,
each one has excluded substantial populations from the full
benefits of those transitions.
The accelerating pace of change means that avoiding those
failings this time requires what Dr. King referred to as the “fierce
urgency of now.” We need a surge of government action that
produces sustainable results. The actions recommended in this
Plan represent a collective understanding of the need to take
concrete actions, and to take them quickly and decisively. As Dr.
King also said in 1967, as the United States faced a similar
crossroads, “If we do not act, we shall surely be dragged down the
long, dark, and shameful corridors of time reserved for those who
possess power without compassion, might without morality, and
strength without sight.” Let us use our power, our might, and our
strength to ensure our transition to an information economy is at
last the one that achieves the vision of the Declaration of
Independence, that all Americans are created equal.
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 184
Endnotes
ENDNOTES
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN FOR DIGITAL EQUITY AND INCLUSION
1
See Section 3.8.5. It should be noted that the FCC’s CAF II auction and RDOF Phase I auction fail to
meet these criteria.
2
For example, New York’s “Broadband for All” program “called for applications for funding to provide
access to broadband at speeds of at least 100 [Mbps] (download) in most places, and 25 Mbps
(download) in the most remote, unserved parts of the State.” [www.ny.gov/programs/broadband-all].
3
Paul de Sa, Improving the Nation’s Digital Infrastructure, Federal Communications Commission,
available at https://transition.fcc.gov/Daily_Releases/Daily_Business/2017/db0119/DOC-343135A1.pdf
4
Cartesian, available at https://www.cartesian.com/fiber-broadband-association-new-study-finds-all-
fiber-deployments-to-90-of-households-achievable-in-next-decade/
5
See Fiber Broadband Association, About Us, available at www.fiberbroadband.org/about-us
6
Except where noted, the data below is from the 2019 ACS; Figures in the appendix offer more granular
detail on some of the following datapoints, such as income.
7
https://liverpool5g.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Liverpool-5G-Testbed-Benefits-Outcomes-
Impact.pdf
8
Laura LaBerge et al., How Covid-19 Has Pushed Companies Over the Technology Tipping Point and
Transformed Business Forever, McKinsey (Oct. 5, 2020), https://www.mckinsey.com/business-
functions/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/how-covid-19-has-pushed-companies-over-the-
technology-tipping-point-and-transformed-business-forever.
9
Lance Whitney, Where the Jobs Are: Tech Hiring is On the Rise, Tech Republic (Nov. 12, 2020),
https://www.techrepublic.com/article/where-the-jobs-are-tech-hiring-is-on-the-rise/.
10
Jhacova Williams, Laid Off More, Hired Less: Black Workers in the COVID-19 Recession, The RAND
Blog (Sept. 29, 2020), https://www.rand.org/blog/2020/09/laid-off-more-hired-less-black-workers-in-the-
covid.html.
Blacks, Latinos And Native Americans Bear Heaviest Financial Burden Of Pandemic : Shots - Health
11
News : NPR
12
Valerie Wilson, 10 years after the start of the Great Recession, black and Asian households have yet to
recover lost income, Economic Policy Institute (Sept. 12, 2018), https://www.epi.org/blog/10-years-after-
the-start-of-the-great-recession-black-and-asian-households-have-yet-to-recover-lost-income/.
13
Mark Muro, Alan Berube & Jacob Whiton, Black and Hispanic underrepresentation in tech: It’s time to
change the equation, Brookings Instit. (Mar. 28, 2018), https://www.brookings.edu/research/black-and-
hispanic-underrepresentation-in-tech-its-time-to-change-the-equation/.
14
Marc Morial, The Gumbo Coalition at pp. 173-180 (HarperCollins Leadership, 2020).
15
Federal and state-certified Registered Apprenticeship programs are made up of five components: (1)
involvement from employers; (2) structured on-the-job training; (3) related technical instruction (RTI),
comprised of technical education at community colleges, technical schools, apprenticeship training
schools, or provided online or at the job site; (4) apprentice rewards, such as wage increases, for skill
gains; and (5) a resulting nationally-recognized credential that lets employers know apprentices are fully
qualified for jobs. See U.S. Department of Labor “A Quick-Start Toolkit: Building Registered
Apprenticeship Programs” at 9, available at
https://www.doleta.gov/oa/employers/apprenticeship_toolkit.pdf (last visited November 16, 2022).
16
See Deloitte Insights and Manufacturing Institute, The Jobs Are Here, But Where Are the People? at 2,
available at https://www.themanufacturinginstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/MI-DI-The-jobs-are-
here-where-are-the-people.pdf (last visited November 16, 2022).
17
See McKinsey & Company, “COVID-19 Recovery in Hardest-Hit Sectors Could Take More Than 5
Years” (July 29, 2020), finding that in a “muted-recovery” scenario, some industries, including arts,
entertainment and recreation; accommodation and food services; transportation and warehousing; and
manufacturing, could take more than five years to return to 2019-level contributions to GDP, available at
https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/coronavirus-leading-through-the-crisis/charting-the-path-to-
the-next-normal/COVID-19-recovery-in-hardest-hit-sectors-could-take-more-than-5-years (last visited
October 22, 2020).
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 186
18
See BestColleges “2020 Online Education Trends Report,” available at
https://res.cloudinary.com/highereducation/image/upload/v1584979511/BestColleges.com/edutrends/20
20-Online-Trends-in-Education-Report-BestColleges.pdf (last visited November 6, 2020).
19
See LinkedIn Talent Solutions “The Ultimate List of Hiring Statistics for Hiring Mangers, HR
Professionals, and Recruiters,” available at https://business.linkedin.com/content/dam/business/talent-
solutions/global/en_us/c/pdfs/Ultimate-List-of-Hiring-Stats-v02.04.pdf (last visited November 6, 2020).
20
See About Glassdoor, available at https://www.glassdoor.com/about-us/ (last visited November 6,
2020).
21
See About Indeed, available at https://www.indeed.com/about (last visited November 6, 2020).
22
See Mansoor Iqbal, Business of Apps, “LinkedIn Usage and Revenue Statistics (2020)” (November 6,
2020), available at https://www.businessofapps.com/data/linkedin-statistics/ (last visited November 6,
2020).
23
Id.
24
See J. Clement, Statista, “Online and social media recruiting - Statistics & facts” (November 29, 2019),
available at https://www.statista.com/topics/2727/online-recruiting/ (last visited November 6, 2020).
25
See Richard Fry, Pew Research Center, “Millennials Are the Largest Generation in the U.S. Labor
Force” (April 11, 2018), stating, “The youngest Boomer was 53 years old in 2017, while the oldest
Boomers were older than 70. With more Boomers retiring every year and not much immigration to affect
their numbers, the size of the Boomer workforce will continue to shrink. While the Millennial labor force is
still growing, partly due to immigration, it is unlikely that the Millennial labor force will reach the peak size
of the Boomer labor force (66 million in 1997);” available at https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-
tank/2018/04/11/millennials-largest-generation-us-labor-force/ (last visited October 22, 2020).
26
See McKinsey & Company, supra note 3.
27
See Section 8.4.2.1, infra, detailing these programs and other pre- and post-COVID-19 efforts.
28
See, for example, U.S. Department of Labor, “Create a New Program” webpage, listing “a few key
steps involved in creating your very own Registered Apprenticeship Program.” The steps show that the
Department of Labor allows, but does not require, employers to add virtual components to the classroom
training components of their RAPs. The page states, “For the classroom educational component, you
may select a provider that is either internal to your organization or external (e.g., Community college,
vocational school, online provider) which can be delivered in-person or virtually.” For these programs,
virtual components to classroom training is allowed, but not required. Available at
https://www.apprenticeship.gov/employers/registered-apprenticeship-program/build/create (last visited
November 16, 2020).
29
See, for example, the Career One-Stop website, which includes a search tool for the nearly 2,400
American Job Centers nationwide, available at
https://www.careeronestop.org/LocalHelp/AmericanJobCenters/find-american-job-
centers.aspx?&location=20006&radius=25&ct=0&y=0&w=0&e=0&sortcolumns=Distance&sortdirections
=ASC&curPage=1&pagesize=25 (last visited November 16, 2020). The page currently has a COVID-19
update that says, “Many AJCs are temporarily closed or have moved to virtual services. You may see
updates for individual centers below. Please call or email a center for the latest information on their
current services.” A search of the American Job Center Finder for AJCs within 25 miles of the
Washington, DC, area, for example, yields 17 results. Ten locations are listed as “closed to public;
available by phone and email”; six are listed as “closed to the public due to the COVID-19 until further
notice”; and one is listed as “operating at limited capacity to ensure social distancing due to COVID-19.”
30
See Elka Torpey and Ryan Farrell, Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Apprenticeships: Outlook and Wages in
Selected Occupations” (updated November 2019), available at
https://www.bls.gov/careeroutlook/2019/article/apprenticeships-outlook-wages-update.htm (last visited
October 23, 2020).
31
See U.S. Department of Labor, “Discover Apprenticeship: A Proven Solution for Your Workforce”
(updated September 2020), available at
https://www.apprenticeship.gov/sites/default/files/Employer_Fact_Sheet.pdf (last visited October 23,
2020).
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 187
See Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, “COVID-19 Frequently Asked
32
Questions,” available at https://www.dol.gov/agencies/eta/coronavirus (last visited October 23, 2020).
33
See David H. Bradley, Congressional Research Service, “The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity
Act and the One-Stop Delivery System” (October 27, 2015), available at
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44252.pdf (last visited November 4, 2020).
34
Id.
35
See WorkforceGPS, U.S. Department of Labor, “One-Stop Center Service Design (Transcript)”
(December 12, 2016), available at https://www.workforcegps.org/resources/2016/03/30/09/20/One-
Stop_Center_Service_Design (last visited October 28, 2020).
36
See American Job Center Finder, available at
https://www.careeronestop.org/LocalHelp/AmericanJobCenters/find-american-job-centers.aspx (last
visited October 28, 2020).
37
See CareerOneStop, About Us, available at https://www.careeronestop.org/Site/about-us.aspx (last
visited October 28, 2020).
38
See National Association of State Workforce Agencies, “About NASWA,” available at
https://www.naswa.org/about (last visited October 26, 2020).
39
See National Association of State Workforce Agencies, “2019 State of the Workforce Report” (released
March 27, 2020), available at https://www.naswa.org/system/files/2020-03/naswastateofworkforce2020-
03-27.pdf (last visited October 26, 2020).
40
Specifically, the WOTC categorizes these groups as “IV-A recipients”—individuals or members of a
family receiving assistance under a state plan approved under part A of title IV of the Social Security Act
relating to Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). See Employment and Training
Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, “Work Opportunity Tax Credit Eligibility Desk Aid” (August 9,
2018), available at https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ETA/wotc/pdfs/WOTC_EligibilityDeskAid.pdf
(last visited November 16, 2020).
41
See Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, “Work Opportunity Tax Credit
Fact Sheet” (February 2020), available at
https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ETA/wotc/pdfs/WOTC_Fact_Sheet.pdf (last visited October 26,
2020).
42
See Congressional Research Service, “The Work Opportunity Tax Credit” (updated September 25,
2018), available at https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43729.pdf (last visited October 26, 2020).
43
See Internal Revenue Service, “Opportunity Zones Frequently Asked Questions” (September 19,
2020), available at https://www.irs.gov/credits-deductions/opportunity-zones-frequently-asked-questions
(last visited November 5, 2020).
44
See Urban Institute, “An Early Assessment of Opportunity Zones for Equitable Development Projects”
(July 28, 2020), available at https://www.urban.org/research/publication/early-assessment-opportunity-
zones-equitable-development-projects/view/full_report (last visited November 5, 2020).
45
See Adam Looney, The Brookings Institution, “Will Opportunity Zones help distressed residents or be
a tax cut for gentrification?” (February 26, 2018), available at https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-
front/2018/02/26/will-opportunity-zones-help-distressed-residents-or-be-a-tax-cut-for-gentrification/ (last
visited November 16, 2020).
46
See Samantha Jacoby, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, “Potential Flaws of Opportunity Zones
Loom, as Do Risks of Large-Scale Tax Avoidance” (January 11, 2019), available at
https://www.cbpp.org/research/federal-tax/potential-flaws-of-opportunity-zones-loom-as-do-risks-of-
large-scale-tax (last visited November 16, 2020).
47
See Department of Finance and Administrative Services Purchasing and Contracting, City of Seattle,
“2019 Priority Hire Annual Report” (June 15, 2020), available at
https://www.seattle.gov/Documents/Departments/FAS/PurchasingAndContracting/Labor/fas-2019-
priority-hire-annual-report.pdf (last visited October 28, 2020). Since the program’s beginning in 2013,
workers living in economically distressed communities have earned $25.7 million in wages, which the
City estimates is $12.4 million more than they would have earned without Priority Hire. By working on the
City’s big construction projects, Latino men earn an estimated 43% more per hour than the average
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 188
Latino man working in King County, and African Americans saw a 100% increase in their share of 2019
hours over past performance by Priority Hire.
48
See Office of Governor Janet Mills, “Governor Mills Signs Executive Order to Fast Track Free Online
Job Training at Maine’s Community Colleges,” (March 30, 2020), available at
https://www.maine.gov/governor/mills/news/governor-mills-signs-executive-order-fast-track-free-online-
job-training-maines-community (last visited October 27, 2020).
49
See Office of Governor Ned Lamont, “Governor Lamont Announces Statewide Launch of Free Online
Job Training Program for Unemployment Claimants” (May 4, 2020), available at
https://portal.ct.gov/Office-of-the-Governor/News/Press-Releases/2020/05-2020/Governor-Lamont-
Announces-Statewide-Launch-of-Free-Online-Job-Training-Program (last visited October 27, 2020).
50
See Department of Finance and Administrative Services Purchasing and Contracting, City of Seattle,
“2019 Priority Hire Annual Report” (June 15, 2020), available at
https://www.seattle.gov/Documents/Departments/FAS/PurchasingAndContracting/Labor/fas-2019-
priority-hire-annual-report.pdf (last visited October 28, 2020). Since the program’s beginning in 2013,
workers living in economically distressed communities have earned $25.7 million in wages, which the
City estimates is $12.4 million more than they would have earned without Priority Hire. By working on the
City’s big construction projects, Latino men earn an estimated 43% more per hour than the average
Latino man working in King County, and African Americans saw a 100% increase in their share of 2019
hours over past performance by Priority Hire.
51
See Brad Smith, Microsoft, “Microsoft launches initiative to help 25 million people worldwide acquire
the digital skills needed in a COVID-19 economy” (June 30, 2020), available at
https://blogs.microsoft.com/blog/2020/06/30/microsoft-launches-initiative-to-help-25-million-people-
worldwide-acquire-the-digital-skills-needed-in-a-COVID-19-economy/ (last visited October 22, 2020).
52
See Comcast, “Comcast Offers Thousands of Grants, Equipment, Marketing and Tech Resources to
Small Businesses Hardest Hit by COVID” (October 13, 2020), available at
https://corporate.comcast.com/press/releases/comcast-grants-resources-small-diverse-businesses-
COVID-19 (last visited November 5, 2020).
53
See Connect the Future website, available at https://connectthefuture.com/ (last visited November 6,
2020).
54
See Section 8.4.2, supra.
55
Id.
See Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey” (last
56
modified October 5, 2020), available at https://www.bls.gov/web/empsit/cpsee_e16.htm (last visited
October 23, 2020).
57
See Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Health Equity Considerations and Racial and Ethnic
Minority Groups” (July 24, 2020), available at https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-
ncov/community/health-equity/race-ethnicity.html (last visited October 22, 2020).
58
Id.
59
See Section 8.4.2, supra.
60
See Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies, “Improving Training to Brighten the Future of
Black Workers” (September 14, 2019), available at https://jointcenter.org/wp-
content/uploads/2019/10/Skills-Report-6-Page-Fact-Sheet-Infographic-9-12-19-1049am.pdf (last visited
October 27, 2020).
61
See Spotlight on Poverty and Opportunity, “Leveraging Science and Technology to Confront Social
Challenges: A Conversation with Tom Kalil” (July 3, 2019), available at
https://spotlightonpoverty.org/spotlight-exclusives/leveraging-science-and-technology-to-confront-
social-challenges-a-conversation-with-tom-kalil/ (last visited November 16, 2020).
62
See Section 8.4.2, supra.
63
The U.S. Department of Labor recognizes these burdens, and includes in its RAP funds allocations for
supportive services “such as transportation or child care […] to ensure retention and full participation in
the related classroom instruction. […] Supportive services would most commonly be provided during
THE LEWIS LATIMER PLAN 189
pre-apprenticeship or at the beginning of an apprenticeship program. Once the apprentice is on the job,
he or she will earn a wage and receive incremental wage increases throughout the apprenticeship,
reducing the need for supportive services.” See ApprenticeshipUSA, U.S. Department of Labor, “Making
ApprenticeshipUSA Work for the Public Workforce System: Using Workforce Funds to Support
Apprenticeship,” available at https://www.dol.gov/apprenticeship/toolkit/docs/desk-aid-use-of-funds.pdf
(last visited November 16, 2020).
64
See Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, “Workforce Innovation and
Opportunity Act (WIOA) and Wagner-Peyser Act Statutory Formulas for State Allotments” (2020),
available at https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ETA/budget/pdfs/FormDesc20.pdf (last visited
November 16, 2020).
65
See U.S. Department of Labor, “FY 2019 Department of Labor Budget in Brief,” available at
https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/general/budget/2019/FY2019BIB.pdf (last visited November 6,
2020).
66
See Angela Hanks and David Madland, Center for American Progress, “Better Training and Better
Jobs: A New Partnership for Sectoral Training” (February 22, 2018), available at
https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/reports/2018/02/22/447115/better-training-better-
jobs/ (last visited November 9, 2020).
See Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, “COVID-19 Frequently Asked
67
Questions,” available at https://www.dol.gov/agencies/eta/coronavirus (last visited October 23, 2020).
68
See National Urban League, National Action Network, NAACP, and National Coalition on Black Civic
Participation, “21st Century Agenda for Jobs and Freedom” (2013), describing economics and job
creation as guiding principles toward eliminating racial inequality in American economic life, available at
https://nul.org/sites/default/files/2020-
07/21st%20Century%20Agenda%20for%20Jobs%20and%20Freedom.pdf (last visited November 9,
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69
See The Century Foundation, the National Employment Law Project, and Philadelphia Legal
Assistance, “Centering Workers—How to Modernize Unemployment Insurance Technology” (October 5,
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70
See Bureau of Labor Statistics, “6 of the 10 Fastest Growing Occupations Are Related to Healthcare,”
available at https://www.bls.gov/emp/images/growing_occupations.png (last visited October 28, 2020).
71
See for example, Allied Health Workforce Diversity Act, H.R. 3637, 116th Cong. (2019), available at
https://www.alverno.edu/media/alvernocollege/library/pdfs/apa7bill.pdf (last visited November 16, 2020).
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Health of Black or African American non-Hispanic
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74
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75
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77
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78
Congressional Research Service, Medicare: Insolvency Projections, May 29, 2020,
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79
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84
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